How The Khilafah Was Destroyed by Abdul Qadeem Zallum

What is striking is that Mustafa Kemal returned from the Dardanelles to Istanbul victorious over the British. The victory had its effects on the morale of the Ottoman armed forces and on Muslims all over the Ottoman State. It also had an effect on the Allies. Nevertheless, Mustafa Kemal returned from the battle that he had led and from which he had emerged victorious to arouse people’s doubts about the State’s ability to fight the British, and to generate the idea of the State withdrawing from the war and signing a unilateral peace treaty with the British. He returned to initiate a domestic battle with the State in order to make her forsake the Germans and side with the British. If before the battle he had held the same opinion, he kept it to himself, but now that he had returned from battle, he started spreading these opinions amongst people, especially the army officers, and attempted to influence the high ranking and powerful personalities. He even started to meet with ministers and talked to them openly of his opinions and attempted to influence them.

On one occasion he visited the foreign minister in his office. The foreign minister at the time was Nasimi Beik, who was from amongst those who suggested that Turkey should enter the war alongside Germany. Nasimi Beik greeted Mustafa Kemal warmly as the hero of Ana Forta and he talked to him in a courteous manner. His talk was full of graceful optimism, especially in the wake of the victory achieved by the State and her defeat and repulsion of the Allies’ armed forces in the Dardanelles. The foreign minister was appreciative of this victory and was aware of the defeat’s effect on the Allies, because it meant keeping Russia deprived of the supplies of the war ammunitions she desperately needed, and subjecting France to a German blitzkrieg due to Russia’s inability to fight through a lack of supplies, which meant that the Germans would secure the eastern front. The balance of power had tilted in favour of the Germans and the Ottoman State against the Allies. It was for this reason that the foreign minister was optimistic. However, Mustafa Kemal attempted to raise pessimism and to convince the minister of his views. It seemed that he sensed the strength of the minister’s arguments, thus he resorted to menace and said to the minister : “You ought to take note of what I am about to tell you! If you allow the politicians to continue affecting you, you will find yourself facing a problem bigger than you and the politicians will have imagined.” Upon this the minister was disquietened and said arrogantly : “I do not know what you mean.” Mustafa Kemal said : “I mean that the country is heading towards destruction, and now you pretend not to see it heading that way. Obviously you are compelled to say this because of your position as minister; however, your personal belief must be completely different to this. You undoubtedly do not ignore the whole reality, and you are undoubtedly aware of the source of the ailment and where the calamity lies.” The minister was stunned. He then turned to Mustafa Kemal and said to him in a sturdy tone : “Colonel! If you have come here to cast your doubts about the country’s situation, then let me tell you that this is neither the time nor the place to cast such doubts. You have made a mistake by coming to me, for my fellow ministers and I have total faith in the Commander in Chief; I therefore suggest that you go and see him so that he can dissipate these fears of yours and eradicate the things that are worrying you.” He then dismissed him from his office.

The next morning, the foreign minister briefed the Commander in Chief about the conversation that had taken place between him and Mustafa Kemal and urged him to inflict on him the appropriate punishment. The Commander in Chief decided to banish Mustafa Kemal to the Caucasus.

He was instantly banished and remained there for over a year without being able to undertake any significant activity.

The meeting with the foreign minister marked the first official endeavour by Mustafa Kemal to lure the State out of the war and to persuade the statesmen, ministers and officers alike, to do so. There was no indication at the time to suggest that he pursued such an initiative on the basis of specific contacts with the British. Thus his action was deemed to be a personal opinion and an exertion solely from his part. By banishing him, the State was rid of this idea. However, a series of events took place afterwards, these being initiated by Mustafa Kemal in order to implement his thoughts by force and to seize power by force, whereupon his treason became manifest.

As for the first event, this took place while he was in the Caucasus. An attempted coup was staged and it was thought that he was implicated.

Major Yaqub Jamil Beik conspired with his friends to topple the government. To quote from what he said to his friends : “Those men who think they are big are in fact small and the country calls for their removal from their posts to replace them with men who have more patriotism and more sincerity.” His friends interrupted : “The removal of such men is a simple matter, but could you tell us about the man who in your view could restore the regime to its old self?” Upon this Yaqub instantly replied : “Mustafa Kemal.” The conspiracy was later uncovered and Yaqub and his friends were executed. Mustafa Kemal heard of this news during his stay in the Caucasus. Its impact upon him was like a thunderbolt. The news reached him via Doctor Hilmi Beik, who was an accessory to the conspiracy, but he had managed to flee from Istanbul and go to Mustafa Kemal. The government in Istanbul had ordered Mustafa Kemal to arrest Doctor Hilmi and send him back at once, but Mustafa Kemal sent a telegram to the authorities in which he said : “Doctor Hilmi is as of now under my protection.” The government could do little but remain silent, for a confrontation with Mustafa Kemal would have led to adverse consequences. Hence, it became clear to the government and to many personalities within the State and the army that Mustafa Kemal was aspiring to seize power and to withdraw from the war. Thus Mustafa Kemal emerged on the political scene not only with the thoughts that he carried, but also with a method by which he aimed at executing those thoughts. Consequently, he became the object of caution and apprehension.

As for the second event, this took place when the State was defeated in Ardh-Rum (Roman land), and Baghdad fell in March 1917 at the hands of the British. Mustafa Kemal’s audacity against the State then became clearly manifest and he started openly calling upon the government to withdraw from the war. Circumstantially, the Russians intensified their attack on Ardh-Rum, which subsequently fell into their hands. The loss of the fortress could have been curtailed and the authorities would have been able to cover up the scandal. However, the British attacked Iraq and conquered Baghdad, thus the weakness of the State was exposed and her defeat became manifest.

The British had attacked Iraq with an army from India, but the Ottoman army confronted them and halted the British onslaught. They also managed to repel a British relief task force. On 29th April 1916, they forced the contingent of Tomshend that was besieged in Kut Al-Amara to surrender and took everyone as prisoner. However, the British forces heading towards Iraq were greater than the Ottoman forces stationed there, so British military superiority started to be reflected in the battles and the scales tilted in favour of the British.

In February 1917, the British recaptured Kut Al-Amara. Then in March 1917 they captured Baghdad and continued their march towards Al- Moosil. This caused disquiet within the government and a public opinion calling for the removal of Anwar from the war ministry and his replacement was generated. Even the Committee of Union & Progress, which at the time was the ruling party and of whom Anwar was one of its most prominent figures, was of the same opinion.

Hence, the issue of replacing Anwar at the head of the war ministry by one of the competent officers was discussed. The names put forward to assume such a post under such circumstances were Jamal Pasha, Marshal Izzet and Mustafa Kemal. The post of war minister required experience and shrewdness in political matters. Hence, the appointment of Jamal Pasha or Marshal Izzet to such a post would have been a mistake, for the former had failed in his post as governor of Syria and the latter had no experience in politics. Thus Mustafa Kemal became the obvious choice.

However, it was well known that Mustafa Kemal wanted to topple the government and withdraw from the war. His views on the war were well known. Hence, he was rejected as he used to write to the government warning them against pursuing the war. He believed that Germany had already lost the war politically and that she was no longer capable of winning the war militarily. He also doubted whether the Ottoman State would be able to distance herself from the war, because he deemed it necessary for the Allies to have a passage in the Dardanelles in order to establish a link with the allied countries in the east. On the other hand, Russia used to be considered the archenemy of the Ottoman Empire. All of these opinions were well known and he used to openly declare them.

Hence, nobody was ever in any doubt that had Mustafa Kemal assumed the general command of the armed forces, he would have introduced radical changes to the government and its policies. Therefore, the voice of those calling for the removal of Anwar receded and they started for the recapture of Baghdad forthwith.

Anwar approached the German High Command and urged them persistently to supply him with reinforcements in order to recapture Baghdad. The Germans for their part went to great lengths to assist their ally Anwar and keep him in office. One of the measures they undertook was to place General Erich von Falkenhayn and a large number of contingents under his disposal. Falkenhayn built up a new force which he named “Thunderbolt”, with Aleppo as its General Command headquarters. Mustafa Kemal was promoted to the rank of General and appointed as the commander of the 4th army under the general command of Falkenhayn.

Mustafa Kemal was averse to the idea of having the general command in the hands of one of the Germans. He deemed any effort to be spent in recapturing Baghdad as futile and that the efforts being made to recapture it were lost and to no avail. He even considered that the undertaking of such an action would lead to fresh heavy losses to the Ottoman army.

Consequently, he embarked upon proving to the country the ignorance of those calling for the recapture of Baghdad and the error of Anwar’s policies. He also embarked upon outlining the damage that the country would suffer as a result of this crooked policy. Then he started to speak in detail in his speeches about the losses which the Ottoman State suffered because of her capitulation to the Germans. Thus, it was inevitable for him to clash with the German commander. The German commander Falkenhayn, for his part attempted to win him over and pacify him with all possible means but he failed. He allowed him to attend the meetings of the high command.

The plan was to attack Baghdad by land and the Suez Canal by air. By attacking the Suez Canal, the British forces would be unable to reinforce their counterparts in Iraq. However, Mustafa Kemal criticised this plan and attacked it severely, declaring that it was doomed to failure. However, the Germans disregarded his opposition and his criticism and nobody supported his views except Jamal Pasha, for he held the same opinion.

Indeed, they were known to be the two officers who hated the Germans and who advocated the withdrawal of the State from the war. Hence, Jamal Pasha stood by Mustafa Kemal in their discussions with the high command, but the plan remained in process because the Commander in Chief Falkenhayn as well as the other commanders deemed it sound and successful.

Then the causes of the quarrel between Mustafa Kemal and Falkenhayn came in succession. One day, the war cabinet held a meeting to start executing the plans; the meeting was overshadowed by heated debates; Falkenhayn addressed Mustafa Kemal with harsh words and Mustafa Kemal for his part replied in kind. Consequently, Mustafa Kemal tabled his resignation but Anwar rejected it and ordered him to return to the Caucasus. However, Mustafa Kemal did not abide by the order this time and refused to go, thus Anwar retracted and deemed that the best style to get rid of such a bizarre situation and to conceal his rebellion was to grant him an indefinite sick leave. However Falkenhayn did not agree to this leave and suggested the prosecution of the rebel commander before a court marshal. Finally they settled on granting him leave. At the time Mustafa Kemal was in Aleppo. He attempted to leave the city and revealed that he needed money. At that time he owned ten thoroughbreds and wanted to sell them, but could not find a buyer. Upon this Jamal Pasha offered to help him, so he gave him £2000, and sent a further £3000

once he had returned to Istanbul. Therefore by adopting these activities, Mustafa Kemal appeared clearly to be at odds with the Ottoman State regarding her conflict with the British.

As for the third event, it reflected the fact that the issue was no longer a mere voicing of an opinion and a mere rebellion, for Mustafa Kemal started to persist in his quest to seize power. He also undertook a host of activities from which one could deduce that he had established contact with the British in order to implement his thoughts.

On 3rd July 1918, Sultan Muhammad Rashad died and he was succeeded to the throne by Muhammad Wahid-ud-Deen, otherwise known as Muhammad 5th. Mustafa Kemal decided that the opportunity had come for him to seize power, for he had just accompanied Wahid-ud-Deen to Germany where they met with Hindenburg. Anwar had sent Mustafa Kemal to Germany with Wahid-ud-Deen, who at the time was heir apparent, so that he could see for himself the might of Germany in the hope that he would change his views.

No sooner had they returned from their trip than the death of Muhammad Rashad occurred and Wahid-ud-Deen acceded to the throne. Mustafa Kemal jumped at the opportunity of having just accompanied Wahidud- Deen and attempted to convince him of his views so that he could appoint him the head of the government. He visited the new Sultan on a friendly basis and Wahid-ud-Deen greeted him warmly and courteously.

He made him feel welcome and even lit a cigarette for him. This encouraged Mustafa Kemal to speak to him frankly about his views. Hence, he set about explaining his strategy and stressing to him that the devastation threatening the country was imminent. Also that the Sultan should personally assume total control over the armed forces and strip Anwar and the German commanders of all powers in order to become the effective man in charge and not just a nominal Sultan. He also confirmed his readiness to shoulder the responsibility of the High Command, thereby saving the Ottoman State from the precipice over which it was teetering.

He also told him that he should rid himself of the German alliance and hold a unilateral peace treaty before it was too late.

Upon this Wahid-ud-Deen asked him : “Are there any more officers who share your views?” Mustafa Kemal replied : “There are many of them Your Honour.” However, Wahid-ud-Deen did not promise him anything.

So he met him a second time but still Wahid-ud-Deen did not promise anything. He met him a third time and once again he explained to him his viewpoint. Wahid-ud-Deen listened to him in silence until he finished; then he turned to him and said in a harsh and decisive tone : “I have organised all my affairs in conjunction with their Excellencies Anwar Pasha and Tal’at Pasha.” Then he instantly dismissed him.

Less than two weeks later, Wahid-ud-Deen summoned Mustafa Kemal, so he came. The Sultan was surrounded by his staff and some German commanders. Having greeted him warmly, he turned to them and said :

“This is Mustafa Kemal Pasha. He is one of the most competent officers that I trust.” He then turned to Mustafa Kemal and said : “Your Excellency, I have appointed you as Commander of the Syrian front. It is of a great strategic importance and I want you to go there immediately. Do not let it fall into the hands of the enemy. I am confident that you will accomplish the task and I am delegating it to you to conduct it in the best possible manner and that nearest to perfection.” He then ordered him to leave instantly without giving him a chance to speak.

As for the fourth event, this was reflected in the fact that when Mustafa Kemal travelled to the Syrian front to fight the British, he instead surrendered the country to them and withdrew to Anatolia. After having been given his orders, he travelled to his headquarters in the Syrian front and arrived there at the end of August in 1918 and he reported to the German High Commander Liman von Sanders, for Falkenhayn had already returned to Germany in the spring. von Sanders greeted him warmly, for he knew him since the days of Ana Forta, and he handed him the command of the seventh army which dominated the middle part of the line of defence. After assuming the command of the army at the front, he complained of kidney troubles, and he remained bed ridden at the command’s centre in Nablus from 1st September 1918. On 19th September the British attack on the front started, so Mustafa Kemal withdrew with his troops back to the River Jordan. He then crossed the river and gathered his troops and headed towards the desert, hastily withdrawing with them alongside the railway line, without pause until they reached Damascus.

In Damascus, the High Commander von Sanders ordered him on 27th September to establish a new defence line in Riaq, so he went to accomplish that task. He then went back to Liman von Sanders and informed him that it would be useless to organise a line of defence in Riaq and that the organising of troops would require ample time. He also suggested that the army should withdraw a further 100 miles towards Aleppo and abandon the whole of Syria, so that they could block the way to Turkey itself in the face of the advancing enemies.

When he suggested this opinion, the German commander said to him :

“I cannot issue the order to execute such a plan and I cannot take the responsibility of leaving a large area of the Ottoman Empire as an easy prey to the enemy without giving a last shot.” Upon this Mustafa Kemal said : “I take full responsibility.” He then issued the order to immediately cease all confrontation with the enemy and to prepare for a general evacuation towards Aleppo, in order to defend Turkey herself. Then he set off towards Aleppo reaching her on 6th October.

During that time the Arab leaders, spurred on by the British intelligence officer Lawrence, asked Mustafa Kemal to use his influence to persuade the government to hold a unilateral peace treaty with the Allies.

At the same time, after Mustafa Kemal’s arrival in Aleppo, the movements the British warships intensified in the gulf of Iskandaron, and on 14th October three torpedo boats entered the gulf. One of the boats hoisted a white flag and disembarked a small boat that took a host of British and French officers ashore where they met with the commander of the Turkish garrison and then returned; then the torpedo boats left the gulf.

Furthermore, once Mustafa Kemal had set up a defence line ten miles north of Aleppo, he sent a telegram to the Sultan in which he recommended that Izzet Pasha head the government, and he suggested the forming of a new government with the portfolios going to the persons he listed in his telegram while asking for the war ministry’s portfolio to be given to him, thus giving him absolute command over the whole of the Turkish army.

He did not receive a reply to his telegram from the Sultan. However, news reached him soon afterwards that Anwar and Tal’at had fallen and that Izzet Pasha had been appointed as head of the government, and also that the members of the new government were those he had mentioned in his telegram. Izzet Pasha also sent him a personal telegram in which he said : “Allah willing, I hope that we can meet as friends by the time the terms of the truce have been signed.” This indicates that Mustafa Kemal went to Syria not with the intention to fight, but in search of a means to carry out his plan once he had failed to persuade Sultan Wahid-ud-Deen of his plan and once he had been banished to the front. His stay in Nablus under the pretext of illness, then his swift withdrawal to Damascus raises doubt and suspicion. As for his withdrawal from the whole of Syria, to leave her an easy prey to the British and violate the orders of the General Commander, it is probable that he did so in collaboration with the British. This is supported by the fact that he had established contact with Lawrence through the Arab chiefs who suggested to him the use of his influence to persuade his government to withdraw from the war and hold a unilateral peace treaty.

It is also supported by the fact that he said that he wanted to establish a line of defence in Aleppo in order to defend Turkey and then turned his back to it and took with him only the Turkish soldiers. It is also supported by the telegram he sent to Wahid-ud-Deen, and finally it is confirmed and established by the personal answer he received from Izzet Pasha and his saying in that telegram : “I hope that we can meet as friends by the time the terms of the truce have been signed.”