In the Shade of the Qur'an by Sayyid Qutb

This new passage resumes the elaboration of religious obligations and practical rules governing behaviour within the Muslim community and its relations with the outside world.

It explains the religious and practical significance of the phases of the moon. It dismisses the pre-Islamic Arab superstitious practice of entering houses through the back door on certain occasions. It outlines the rules governing war and fighting generally, as well as the prohibition of fighting in the four lunar months: Rajab (the seventh), Dhu’l-Qa’dah (the eleventh), Dhu’l-Ĥijjah (the twelfth) and Muharram (the first) and particularly in the vicinity of the Sacred Mosque in Makkah. It ends with a comprehensive description of the rituals of the pilgrimage and the `Umrah (which may be described as a mini-pilgrimage) as prescribed by Islam, revising, modifying and replacing all the pagan and idolatrous concepts and practices of former times.

In one concise passage, and in a succinctly clear style, the Qur’ān lays down rules and principles relating to faith and belief, the regulation of religious rituals and practices, as well as war and fighting. These are all linked and interlaced with powerful admonitions and comments evocative of God and His power.

On correcting the Arab practice of entering houses through the back door, the sūrah points out that form, in itself, is not what really matters but it is one’s consciousness and fear of God. It says: “Righteousness does not mean that you enter houses from the rear; but truly righteous is he who fears God. Enter houses by their doors and In dealing with war, the sūrah directs Muslims never to initiate aggression, affirming that “God does not love aggressors.’’ (Verse 190) Commenting on fighting during a sacred month, the sūrah urges:

“Fear God and be sure that God is with those who are God-fearing.” (Verse 194)

The sūrah calls on Muslims to spend of their wealth for the cause of God, exhorting them to “Persevere in doing good, for God loves those who do good.” (Verse 195)

The sūrah again emphasizes consciousness and fear of God when dealing with the pilgrimage rituals. “Fear God, and know well that He is severe in retribution.” (Verse 196)

“Provide well for yourselves: the best provision of all is to be God-fearing. Fear Me, then, you who are endowed with insight.” (Verse 197) “Have fear of God, and know well that you shall all be gathered before Him.“ (Verse 203)

It is quite clear that there is a common thread firmly binding these instructions and rulings together. Matters of faith, ritual and law, the spiritual and the mundane, the religious and the secular, the personal, national and international, are all intertwined and spun together in one comprehensive, universal religious and social system based on rules and laws laid down directly by God.

Beginning with this passage, we note a salient feature recurring in the rest of the sūrah. We find the Muslims addressing the Prophet Muĥammad with specific enquiries relating to a wide range of everyday issues and situations they were encountering in their new way of life. They reveal a genuine desire on the part of the new Muslims to find out what their new religion has to say about these matters. The believers wanted to learn more about how Islam viewed and interpreted the social and physical phenomena they were experiencing in the world around them.

They ask about the moon and the various phases it goes through. Why does it start as a fine crescent which becomes bigger until it develops into a full sphere, and then reverses the cycle until it disappears altogether before it is reborn in the shape of a thin crescent again?

They enquired about what part and how much of their wealth they should give away as charity. They enquired about war, and whether it would be allowed during the sacred months and in the vicinity of the Sacred Mosque in Makkah. They asked for Islamic rulings on alcoholic drinks and gambling, which were social habits in pre- Islamic Arabian life.

They enquired regarding menstruation, and whether sexual contact between spouses was allowed during such periods. They enquired about even more intimate and personal issues concerning matrimonial relations. These questions were sometimes raised by women.

Questions relating to other issues are to be found in several other sūrahs in the Qur’ān. The fact that they were raised is in itself significant in more ways than one.

To begin with, it indicates a high degree of enlightenment and dynamism in the Muslim society, which was already developing a distinct character. A sense of community was rapidly growing. The Muslims were no longer a set of isolated individuals, nor were they any longer separate tribes scattered all over Arabia. They had become a nation with its own identity, systems and relationships, in which every person was keen to assume his or her role and position. This new social, intellectual and emotional awareness was brought about by Islam, and was moulded by the Islamic outlook on life, its system and its pioneering views and concepts.

Second, this inquisitiveness also indicates a keen sense of religious consciousness emerging in the new society. It reflects the depth and strength of the hold the new faith had taken on the hearts and minds of its followers. Having discarded their old assumptions and attitudes, and wrenched themselves away from pre-Islamic customs and traditions, they lost confidence in the old order and began looking to their new religion for education and guidance in all aspects of life.

This state of emotional and intellectual awareness is generated by true faith. The believer is freed from all former beliefs and traditions. He begins to view with scepticism all previously held ideas, and to subject all his actions to fresh scrutiny.

The believer becomes readily receptive to the directives of the new faith, and keen to reform his or her life accordingly. Even those former concepts and practices which are approved or adopted by the new order will assume a new context as they are integrated into the new faith.

The new order need not necessarily replace the old one in every detail, but it is important that those details adopted by the new faith should be assimilated and incorporated into it in substance as well as in spirit. This is very well illustrated by the pre-Islamic pilgrimage rituals which Islam transforms into a new set of rules, hardly bearing any resemblance to those formerly practised by the Arabs.

Third, some of the questions the Muslims were raising relate directly to the historical context of that period. The Jews in Madinah and the idolatrous Arabs in Makkah would often voice doubts as to the merits of Islamic teachings and principles. They would seize every opportunity to disparage Islam, exploiting certain occasions or events to wage a campaign of hostility and disinformation. One such occasion involved unwarranted criticism to the effect that a Muslim expedition, led by `Abdullāh ibn Jaĥsh, had violated the prohibition of fighting during the sacred months by attacking a Quraysh caravan.

The Muslims found it necessary to solicit answers and explanations to reassure themselves and to enable them to face the propaganda launched against them by their enemies.

This illustrates that the Qur’ān was keeping abreast of the confrontation between the Muslims and the non-Muslims, and providing the Muslims with guidance and leadership. This was happening in areas of faith and belief as well as in the real world, where the enemies of Islam were incessantly scheming and plotting against its followers.

The situation today is not very different: the same battles continue to rage on.

Human nature has not changed, and the enemies of Islam can be found everywhere.

But the Qur’ān is also there. Neither man nor the Muslim world community will be safe until the Qur’ān assumes conduct of the battle as it did for the first generation of Muslims. Unless Muslims realize this fact they cannot hope to succeed or prosper.

The least that results from such a realization is that Muslims would approach the Qur’ān with the same understanding and attitude. The Qur’ān would be seen as a dynamic, active force, formulating new concepts, facing up to anti-Islamic ideas, insulating Muslims against ignorance and deviation and helping them avoid the pitfalls. This would be far removed from the present approach many have adopted towards the Qur’ān, viewing it merely as a fine work of literature and going no farther than reciting it rhythmically or chanting its words like a melody on certain occasions.

The Qur’ān was revealed for a totally different purpose. God meant it as a blueprint for a complete way of life, a stimulus, a driving force guiding the Muslim community, charting its course through thick and thin, and helping it overcome and avoid all the difficulties and obstacles it is bound to encounter in this world.

They ask you about the new moons. Say, ‘They are signs for people to mark fixed periods of time, and for the pilgrimage.’ Righteousness does not mean that you enter houses from the rear, but truly righteous is he who fears God. Enter houses by their doors and fear God, so that you may be successful. (Verse 189)

Some reports suggest that the Prophet Muĥammad was asked why the moon goes through its various phases. Others say that he was asked why have the crescent moons been created, which seems to be more consistent with the answer given in the sūrah: “They are signs for people to mark fixed periods of time, and for the pilgrimage.” They serve as a means by which people fix and measure the time of important religious events and activities such as travel, pilgrimage, fasting, marriage and divorce, as well as trade transactions and loan periods.

Whatever the original enquiry, the answer had gone beyond mere abstraction and given practical, rather than ‘scientific’, information relating to the phases of the moon. The Qur’ān, without going into a detailed astronomical discussion, speaks of the function of the moon and its role in people’s daily life. The Qur’ān did not embark on an explanation of the moon’s position within the solar system or the relative movement of stars, planets and galaxies, although this is implied in the question.

What significance, then, does the answer given in the Qur’ān imply? The principal objective of the Qur’ān was the creation and promotion of a new conception of life in a new social, political and economic order. Indeed, it was working towards the creation of a new human community, with a special role of leadership in the world. It was developing a new model of human society, the like of which had not been known before, to uphold a new way of life that would firmly establish essential universal features and principles which the rest of mankind would look up to and emulate.

A scientific answer would undoubtedly have provided the Prophet’s followers with theoretical knowledge about the universe, to add to their meagre understanding of it. Indeed, it is doubtful that the Arabs knew enough about astronomy at that time to be able to make use of further theoretical information, which would have required an understanding of basic principles and phenomena that were beyond all scientific progress achieved in the world up to that time.

The Qur’ān avoided a scientific answer because people were not ready for it, and it would have been of little use for the universal mission the Qur’ān was revealed to fulfil. Its role was far greater than the mere dissemination of detailed knowledge. The Qur’ān was never intended to be a book on astronomy, chemistry or medicine, as some of its admirers and detractors try, each for their own different purposes, to demonstrate.

These attempts betray a lack of understanding of the nature of the Qur’ān, its function and scope. It is mainly concerned with the human soul and the state and direction of the human condition. Its purpose is to establish a broad view of the world in which we exist and its relationship with the Creator, and a general outline of man’s position in this world and his relationship with the Creator. On the basis of these broad concepts, the Qur’ān goes on to establish a way of life which enables man to apply all his skills and abilities, not least his intellectual faculties. Once these are properly and correctly developed, they are given full freedom, through observation, experiment and scientific research, to probe the mysteries of life and the universe and make the appropriate conclusions — which could never, in any case, be said to be final or absolute.

The basic raw material with which the Qur’ān is concerned is man himself: the way he views things around him, his beliefs, emotions and ideas, his behaviour and activity, and the ties and relationships that govern his life. The conduct and development of material science and innovation are left to man’s mental and intellectual capabilities and his diligent endeavour to know and understand. It is this knowledge and understanding that are the essential prerequisites for man to fulfil his divinely ordained mission in the world, for which he is naturally fitted and qualified.

The Qur’ān nurtures man’s basic nature and protects it against deviation and corruption. It provides man with the moral, social, political and economic foundations and mechanisms that enable him to put his talents and skills to full and proper use. It furnishes him with a broad and comprehensive view of the nature, the inherent harmony, and the delicate balance of the physical world, of which man himself is an important and integral part, and its relationship with the Creator.

The Qur’ān does not cover such topics in great detail, because that is man’s task.

He is expected to take the initiative to search, discover and use his environment in order to further and fulfil his supreme position in the world.

The attempt to make the Qur’ān what it was never meant to be often seems naïve and counter-productive. The fact that the Qur’ān is not a reference book for medicine or chemistry or astronomy takes nothing away from its power and glory.

The Qur’ān deals with something much wider and more comprehensive than all those sciences. It is concerned with man himself, the key to uncovering the facts and mysteries of the world around. The human mind is fully equipped to scrutinize and probe into man’s surroundings, and to experiment with and apply the theories he formulates and the tools he invents. The Qur’ān concentrates on nurturing man’s character, conscience and mind, and laying the sound foundations of the human environment which allows him to make full use of his own hidden potential and that of the world around. Having laid down the groundwork and given man the necessary mental tools and criteria, the Qur’ān leaves man free to seek and search, experiment, achieve and make mistakes, in all areas of life.

There is also a great risk in attempting to seek verification of facts of a scientific nature given occasionally in the Qur’ān through suppositions, theories or so-called ‘scientific facts’ arrived at through human empirical efforts.

The facts that the Qur’ān mentions are absolute and final truths, while those arrived at through human research are not, no matter how advanced or sophisticated the means or the approach used to arrive at them. The latter are constrained by the conditions of man’s own environment, and they are limited by the nature and scope of the tools used. The absolute and final truths of the Qur’ān cannot, therefore, be qualified or authenticated by the inconclusive ones discovered by man.

In addition to ‘scientific fact’, this applies in the case of ‘scientific theory’. This includes theories on the origin of the universe, the creation and evolution of man, and psychological and sociological theories. Even within the realm of human thought, these are not considered to express scientific facts. Indeed, they are no more than suppositions or speculative ideas which, at best, help explain a vast array of physical, biological, psychological or sociological phenomena. As more accurate instruments and more discoveries are made, these theories are constantly amended and developed, or superseded by others that give wider or more accurate explanations or interpretations.

The attempt to verify Qur’ānic facts by the changing findings of human science is fundamentally flawed. It reflects three negative aspects that should not be associated with the Qur’ān.

First, is an inner defeatism that science is somehow superior to the Qur’ān. This leads to an attempt to find scientific evidence to verify and corroborate what the Qur’ān says. But in fact, Qur’ānic statements are definitive, complete and conclusive, while human science remains in a constant state of flux and development. This is due to the constraints of the environment in which human research and experiment are conducted, and the inadequacy of the tools and methods used in those processes.

Second, is a misunderstanding of the true nature and function of the Qur’ān as the absolute definitive truth addressing man in his totality according to his basic nature and within the constraints of the physical world and its laws. Ideally, it aims to achieve perfect harmony between man and the physical world, avoiding a clash between man and nature. Such harmony enables man to unravel, through enquiry, observation, experiment and application, as many of the world’s mysteries as he can and use its potential energies and resources to enhance his position and fulfil his role as God’s vicegerent on earth.

Third, is the continuous interpretation and re-interpretation, with frequent resort to far-fetched and arbitrary methods, of Qur’ānic statements in a vain attempt to make them agree or coincide with speculative suppositions and tentative theories.

However, this should not prevent us from making full use of what human sciences uncover about man, life and the world, for a better understanding of the Qur’ān. God says: “We shall show them Our signs across all horizons and within themselves, until they clearly see that this [revelation] is the truth.” (41: 53) This is a clear call to study closely and absorb what science discovers of God’s signs and to use them to expand the meaning and application of the Qur’ānic injunctions, without undermining or demeaning the immutability and integrity of the Qur’ān.

This may be illustrated further by the following examples:

The Qur’ān says: “And He created all things and ordained them in due proportion.” (25:

2) Scientific observation also has led to the conclusion that there are inherent harmony, very intricate interactions and consonances within the structure of the universe. The earth’s shape and distance from both the sun and the moon, its size relative to theirs, its speed and axis of rotation, and countless other factors combine to make life on earth possible and sustainable. None of this may be attributed to chance or coincidence, or can be said to be without purpose.

These observations no doubt are useful in gaining a better understanding of the Qur’ānic statement. This is quite legitimate and should be encouraged. But here are other examples that are neither legitimate nor scientifically correct.

The Qur’ān says: “We created man from an extraction of clay.” (23: 12) Centuries later, scientists such as Charles Darwin, proposed a theory of evolution which purports that life began in water as a single cell, and that human beings are the result of millions of years of evolution. Now, it would be pointless, indeed wrong, to attempt to show that this is precisely what the Qur’ān says.

To begin with, the theory is not conclusive and, within a century, it underwent several amendments and changes that have made it almost unrecognizable. There were flaws in the original theory, which was conceived at a time when nothing was known of the genes which carry hereditary properties and distinguish one species from another. Several aspects of Darwin’s theory have since been disproved, and many others are still a matter of debate.

The Qur’ānic statement is conclusive as it establishes the origin of man without giving any details of the process involved. It does not aim at more than that and carries no other connotations or meaning.

The Qur’ān tells us: “And the sun runs towards its resting place.” (36: 38) This is a statement of fact concerning the movement of the sun. Science has shown that the sun is indeed moving relative to other stars nearby and is part of a galaxy which itself is moving. Furthermore the speeds at which the sun and the galaxies move are measured. Such observations, relative and inconclusive as they are, do not affect the truth of the Qur’ānic statement, which is final.

The Qur’ān says: “Are the unbelievers unaware that the heaven and the earth were once one single entity, which We then parted asunder?” (21: 30) Some have tried to reconcile this statement with the theory that suggests that the earth was part of the sun and then they were separated. It is futile to try and limit Qur’ānic statements with human scientific theory. This particular theory is not the only one in its field and it is contested by many scientists, while the Qur’ānic statement is complete and conclusive. It merely states a fact without telling us what is meant by ‘heavens’ or how the fragmentation occurred. No scientific proposition should be used to corroborate Qur’ānic statements, no matter how apparently close or similar the conclusions may be.

Having established these principles, we may now return to the Qur’ānic text:

“Righteousness does not mean that you enter houses from the rear, but truly righteous is he who fears God. Enter houses by their doors and fear God, so that you may be successful.” (Verse 189)

This part of the verse and the preceding one relating to phases of the moon seem to be connected by the theme of pilgrimage: the new moon as an astronomical time marker for pilgrimage and other events, and the pre-Islamic Arab pilgrimage custom of entering houses from the rear.

Al-Bukhārī and Muslim relate a report by al-Barā’, in which he said: “It was the custom of the Anşār [i.e. Muslims from Madinah] that on returning from pilgrimage they would approach their houses from the rear. When one of them broke this tradition and entered by the front door, he was severely criticised. It was at this point that the verse was revealed.” A similar report is related by Abū Dāwūd.

Whether this custom related to the pilgrimage only, which seems more probable, or to travelling in general, the Arabs had maintained the belief that it was a sign of piety and righteousness to uphold it. However, the Qur’ān refutes that as an empty gesture that could serve no religious purpose. It goes on to establish the proper religious concept of righteousness as consciousness of God and His presence at all times and in all situations, rather than as a routine gesture that had no meaning whatsoever. Therefore it gives the instruction that houses must be approached from the front, and re-emphasizes the importance of God-fearing as the road to success in this life.

The verse, then, focuses our minds and hearts on taqwā, God- fearing, as a basic fact of faith, and links it with the attainment of absolute success, both in this life and in the life to come. It repeals a useless, ignorant tradition and directs the believers to appreciate God’s grace in providing them with the new moon at the beginning of every month to enable them to determine the time for pilgrimage and other human activities.

This is followed with a statement on fighting in general, and on fighting around the Sacred Mosque in Makkah and during the sacred months in particular. Then follows an urgent call to spend of one’s personal wealth for the promotion of God’s cause, an activity which is closely related to the fundamental Islamic duty of jihād, or struggle for God’s cause:

Fight for the cause of God those who wage war against you, but do not commit aggression. Indeed, God does not love aggressors. Slay them wherever you may come upon them, and drive them away from wherever they drove you away; for oppression is even worse than killing. Do not fight them near the Sacred Mosque unless they fight you there first. Should they fight you, then kill them. Such is the reward of the unbelievers. But if they desist, know that God is much-Forgiving, Merciful. Fight them until there is no more oppression, and submission is made to God alone. If they desist, let there be no hostility except against the wrongdoers. A sacred month for a sacred month: for just retribution also applies to the violation of sanctity. If anyone commits aggression against you, attack him just as he has attacked you. Have fear of God, and be sure that God is with those who are God-fearing. Give generously for the cause of God and do not with your own hands throw yourselves to ruin. Persevere in doing good, for God loves those who do good. (Verses 190-195)

Some reports indicate that these were the first verses on the subject of fighting to be revealed. They were preceded only by verses 39-41 of Sūrah 22: “Permission to fight is given to those against whom war is being wrongfully waged. Most certainly, God has the power to grant them victory. These are the ones who have been driven from their homelands against all right for no other reason than their saying, ‘Our Lord is God.’ Were it not that God repels some people by means of others, monasteries, churches, synagogues and mosques — in all of which God’s name is abundantly extolled — would surely have been destroyed.

God will most certainly succour him who succours God’s cause. God is certainly most Powerful, Almighty. They are those who, if We firmly establish them on earth, attend regularly to their prayers, give in charity, enjoin the doing of what is right and forbid the doing of what is wrong. With God rests the final outcome of all events.” These verses had given the Muslims permission to fight those unbelievers who had oppressed them, and they understood them to be a prelude to the institution of jihād, or striving for God’s cause, as a religious duty. Further, they realized that because they had been oppressed, they were given permission to fight back and restore justice, after they had been restrained from doing so all the time they were in Makkah. Their instructions then were to “hold back your hands [from fighting], and attend regularly to prayer, and pay your zakāt.” (4: 77) This restraint had been imposed by God for a purpose He had determined. We may try to discern some of the reasons behind this order.

The first of these reasons is a disciplinary one, aimed at taming the insubordinate and rebellious nature of the early Arab Muslims. They had to learn to be patient and await instructions, rather than act impulsively and recklessly, as they used to do in pre-Islamic days. For the new Muslim community to fulfil its great universal role, the desire for revenge and heedless reaction had to be brought under control, and left to the discretion of a trusted leadership which gave its decisions careful consideration and was duly obeyed — even though to do so would test the Arabs’ impatient and impetuous nature.

Such discipline enabled people such as `Umar ibn al-Khaţţāb and Ĥamzah ibn Abd al-Muţţalib, and other independent and strong personalities among the early Muslims, to show a great deal of patience in the face of the persecution and oppression being inflicted upon their fellow Muslims. They would await Prophet Muĥammad’s instructions and the commands of the Supreme Authority which had ordered them to “hold back your hands [from fighting’, and attend regularly to prayer, and pay your zakāt.” (4:77) Thus a balance was struck in the consciousness of that pioneering community, between rashness and restraint, impulse and deliberation, passionate reaction and rational compliance.

Another reason for restraining the Muslims from fighting in Makkah was that in Arabian society, rushing to help an oppressed person was highly commendable.

Despite their ability to hit back hard, the Muslims showed a large degree of restraint.

This was demonstrated during the boycott imposed by the rest of the Quraysh against the Prophet’s Hāshimite clan in order to force them to withdraw their support and protection of the Prophet and his followers. When this persecution, which lasted for three years, became unbearable, their re-awakened sense of justice caused some non- Muslim Arabs to break ranks and end the boycott. It seems from a study of the Prophet’s history at this time that, in adopting this policy of passive resistance, the Muslim leadership in Makkah was aware of the crucial role played by social and tribal factors.

This is strongly borne out by the fact that the Muslim leadership had no wish to unleash internecine feuds within the Makkan clans. Muslim converts fell victim to moral and physical torture and abuse to force them to renounce their new faith, even at the hands of members of their own families. These were self-appointed tormentors, with no central authority directing their battles against the Muslims. Had the Muslims been allowed to hit back, fighting would have broken out in every Makkan household, and blood would have been shed in every family. That would have made Islam, in the eyes of Arabian society, seem a divisive religion, advocating strife and destruction within Arab clans.

After the Hijrah, or emigration to Madinah, however, the Muslims emerged as an independent community, prepared to face up to the Makkan leadership which was actively recruiting fighters and organizing military expeditions against it. The situation had changed; instead of individual persecutors targetting individual victims, a collective and deliberate campaign was being organized.

To these reasons one may add the fact that the Muslims in Makkah were a dangerously exposed minority. Had they engaged the unbelievers in armed conflict as an organized group, they would have faced total annihilation. God’s will was that they should first gather in a safe place before He granted them permission to go into battle.

However, the rules governing fighting were issued gradually, as and when the need arose, and as dictated by the needs of the development of Islam, first within Arabia and later outside it as well.

The present verses contain some of those rules which were relevant to that stage of development of the community, when hostility was just beginning to set in between the Muslim and non-Muslim camps. These rules also represent part of the permanent code that has come to govern war in Islam generally. They have undergone slight modifications, given at a later stage in Sūrah 9.

It might well be useful at this point to give a general synopsis of the concept of jihād in Islam, which can form the basis for the interpretation and understanding of Qur’ānic statements on fighting and war.

Islam represents the final and complete version of faith, revealed as the basis of a universal and comprehensive human order on earth. The Muslim community was raised to assume the leadership of humanity in accordance with this order, which derives in its entirety from the comprehensive Islamic concept of the purpose of existence as a whole and of human existence in particular. The Muslim community would lead humanity to ultimate success and to all that is good and noble (khayr), which no man-made order can provide. It would raise mankind to unprecedented moral and material standards. Conversely, no greater harm could be inflicted upon humanity than to deprive it of seeking to attain those levels of nobility, purity, happiness and perfection God wants it to achieve.

It is, therefore, a basic human right to be addressed with the message of Islam. No authority should deny mankind that right and under no circumstances should any obstacles be allowed to prevent that divine message from being delivered.

Having received the message, people have the right to freely accept the religion of Islam, and be under no pressure from any quarter to dissuade or prevent them from taking it up. Those who choose not to accept Islam are expected not to impede its progress. Indeed, they are required to guarantee Islam’s freedom of action and to leave the Muslim community a clear road to fulfil its task, free from any threat of aggression.

Those who adopt the religion of Islam also have the right not to be intimidated or subjected to oppression, in any way whatsoever, so that they abandon their faith. No impediments may be placed to turn people away from Islam. The Muslim community, if subjected to any such aggressive designs, has the right to defend itself by force, in order to protect the community’s freedom and security. This would further the establishment of God’s order on earth and guarantee humanity the opportunity and the right to receive God’s message.

It also results in another obligation that the Muslim community must undertake:

to oppose any power that would stand in its way and prevent it from conveying the message freely to the public, or would threaten its followers. The Muslim community must pursue this course of jihād, or struggle for God’s cause, until all threat of oppression is eliminated and people are free to believe in Islam and practise it. This does not imply any sense of compulsion, but it does mean allowing Islam to prevail in society to the extent that everyone is free to accept it and tell others about it without any fear of persecution or intimidation.

These are the parameters within which the principles of jihād have been laid down.

These are the real objectives for which it has been instituted. It has no other purpose and serves no other end.

Jihād in Islam is pursued to protect the faith against outside attacks as well as internal strife. Its aim is the preservation of the Islamic way of life, establishing it as a force to be respected and reckoned with in the world. Anyone who willingly wishes to enter the fold of Islam should have no fear of being prevented from doing so and should not have to suffer for making that choice.

This is the true jihād, as recognized and endorsed by Islam. Those who take part in it are richly rewarded and rank among the noblest of believers, and those who give their lives in doing so are the true martyrs.

The present passage addresses the situation of the Muslim community in Madinah as it was in confrontation with the pagan Arabs of the Quraysh. Those unbelievers had persecuted the Muslims for their religious beliefs, drove them out of their homes and were trying hard to turn them away from their faith. It also lays down the fundamental rules of jihād in Islam.

It begins with the precise instruction that Muslims should fight those who had been fighting them and to meet with force any attacks against them by anyone, without committing aggression. “Fight for the cause of God those who wage war against you, but do not commit aggression. Indeed, God does not love aggressors.” (Verse 190)

The aims of war in Islam are clearly defined right at the outset: “Fight for the cause of God those who wage war against you...” Fighting should, therefore, be undertaken for the sake of God, and for no other purpose that may be defined by human desires or motivations. War should not be pursued for glory or dominance, nor for material aggrandisement, nor to gain new markets or control raw materials. It should not be pursued to give one class, race or nation of people dominance over another. Fighting in Islam must be undertaken only to promote the aims defined by Islam: to make God’s word supreme in the world, to establish His order, and to protect the believers against persecution, coercion, corruption, and all efforts to force them to betray their faith or abandon it. According to Islam, all other types of war are unjust, and those who take part in them should expect no rewards or blessings from God.

Having defined the objective, the verses also define the limits of war: “... but do not commit aggression. Indeed, God does not love aggressors.” (Verse 190) ‘Aggression’ implies attacks on non-combatants and peaceful, unarmed civilians who pose no threat to Muslims or to their community as a whole. This includes women, children, the elderly, and those devoted to religious activity, such as priests and monks, of all religious and ideological persuasions. Aggression also entails exceeding the moral and ethical limits set by Islam for fighting a just war. These limits outlaw the atrocities perpetrated in wars outside Islam, past and present. Such atrocities are totally repugnant to Muslims and can never be sanctioned or committed by people who honour and fear God.

Here is a selection of these principles and conventions, as laid down by the Prophet Muĥammad and outlined in the instructions of some of his Companions.

They clearly reveal the nature of the Islamic approach to a just war, hitherto unknown to human society.

`Abdullāh ibn `Umar reports that when, in one of the battles, the Prophet was told that a woman was found among those killed, he immediately ordered that women and children should not be killed during combat. [Related by Mālik, al-Bukhārī, Muslim, Abū Dāwūd and al-Tirmidhī] Abū Hurayrah quotes the Prophet as saying: “When you fight, avoid striking your opponent in the face.” [Related by al-Bukhārī and Muslim] Abū Hurayrah reports that the Prophet sent him with an expedition instructing them to burn two men from the Quraysh he had named, but as they were about to depart the Prophet said: “I have ordered you to burn these two people, but only God may punish with fire. If you capture them, just kill them.” [Related by al-Bukhārī, Abū Dāwūd and al-Tirmidhī] `Abdullāh ibn Mas`ūd quotes the Prophet as saying: “True believers are those who strictly observe their moral code when they kill.” [Related by Abū Dāwūd] `Abdullāh ibn Yazīd al-Anşarī reports that the Prophet has strictly forbidden looting and the mutilation of dead bodies. [Related by al- Bukhārī] Ibn Ya`lā reports that on one expedition, the leader, `Abd al-Raĥmān ibn Khālid ibn al-Walīd, was brought four enemy fighters. He ordered that they be tied and put to death slowly. When Abū Ayyūb al-Anşārī, a close Companion of the Prophet, heard of this, he said: “I heard the Prophet forbid slow killing. I swear by God that I would not inflict slow death even on a chicken.” When `Abd al-Raĥmān heard this he immediately sought to free four slaves in compensation. [Related by Abū Dāwūd] We may add here that freeing a slave is part of the prescribed compensation for accidental killing.

Al-Ĥārith ibn Muslim ibn al-Ĥārith quotes his father as saying that the Prophet sent him with others on an expedition. As they approached their target he hurried his horse and reached the village ahead of the rest of the expedition. He said that the inhabitants gave him a noisy reception and that he told them that if they were to declare their acceptance of Islam they would be spared and their safety would be assured. They followed his advice declaring their acceptance of Islam. Some of his Companions reproached him for what he did, saying that he had deprived them of the spoils of war. But when they returned and the Prophet learnt of what had happened, he commended him for his action and said: “God Almighty has given you such and such reward for every one of them.” [Related by Abū Dāwūd] Buraydah reports: “Whenever God’s Messenger appointed a commander to lead an expedition or an army, he would urge him to fear God and to show kindness towards his fellow Muslims. He would then instruct him as follows: “Proceed to fight in God’s name and for His cause. Fight those who deny God. Take the initiative but do not commit any acts of treachery, do not mutilate your victims, and do not kill any children.” [Related by Muslim, Abū Dāwūd and al- Tirmidhī] Mālik quotes Abū Bakr as saying in his farewell address to one of his armies: “You will come across people who claim to have devoted themselves to the service of God, so leave them to their claim. Do not kill any women, children or elderly people.” Such is the code that governs war in Islam, and such are its objectives, which derive directly from the Qur’ānic statement: “Fight for the cause of God those who wage war against you, but do not commit aggression. Indeed, God does not love aggressors.” (Verse 190)

The Muslims were well aware that they would not prevail as a result of their numerical strength or superior armament; they were hopelessly deficient on both counts. The main secret of their victory lay in their faith in, and obedience to, God, and the support they received from Him. To ignore God’s commands and the Prophet’s instructions would have deprived them of the only force that could ensure their victory. These principles had to be strictly observed, even with those enemies who had persecuted them and inflicted unspeakable atrocities on them. Even though at one point the Prophet, overcome by rage, had ordered that two Qurayshī men be a, put to death by burning, he immediately retracted that order, because only God punishes with fire.

The sūrah goes on to reaffirm the rightness of war against those who had subjected the Muslims to campaigns of terror and persecution, and driven them out of their homeland. The Muslims were urged to confront their enemies and kill them wherever they happen to be, except within the vicinity of the Sacred Mosque in Makkah unless their enemies were to attack them there first. Those orders would stand unless the unbelievers accepted Islam, in which case it was forbidden to fight them, regardless of any killings or atrocities they might have perpetrated against Muslims earlier.

“Slay them wherever you may come upon them, and drive them away from wherever they drove you away; for oppression is even worse than killing. Do not fight them near the Sacred Mosque unless they fight you there first. Should they fight you, then kill them. Such is the reward of the unbelievers. But if they desist, know that God is much- Forgiving, Merciful.” (Verses 191-192)

Forced religious conversion is the worst violation of a most inviolable human right. It is, therefore, a much more heinous offence than murder, regardless of the form that coercion takes or how it is exerted.

Suppression of religious freedom can be imposed by threats and the direct use of force. But it can also be practised through the imposition of corrupt or totalitarian regimes and oppressive social systems that deprave the masses, drive them away from God’s path, and encourage and force them to reject the divine faith and break away from it. The best example to illustrate this is Communism, which banned religious instruction, openly advocated atheism, legislated for prostitution and drinking, promoted vice and discouraged virtue almost to the point of direct compulsion.

The Islamic view of freedom of belief assigns it a great status as a social and human value, and stems from the Islamic view of the ultimate purpose of life and of the whole of human existence: the worship of God in its widest sense which encompasses all constructive human activity. Freedom of belief is man’s most precious right in this world, and ought to be cherished and protected. Any infringement of this right, direct or indirect, must be fought even if one has to kill for it. This is borne out by the significant term used in the Qur’ān, which is “slay them [rather than ‘fight them’] wherever you may find them”. This signifies that, if you have to, you may resort to any means to slay those who infringe upon your right of freedom of belief, while heeding those other Islamic principles mentioned earlier.

The other restriction is that no fighting was allowed within the vicinity of the Sacred Mosque in Makkah, which God, in response to the Prophet Abraham’s prayers, had declared a safe haven and an inviolable house of peace. However, those who desecrate the sanctity of the Sacred Mosque and commit aggression against Muslims there must be fought and should not be spared. Their vile actions and their persecution of Muslims, committed as they are within the vicinity of the Sacred Mosque, can only be rewarded with severe punishment.

“But if they desist, know that God is much-Forgiving, Merciful.” (Verse 192) To earn God’s forgiveness and mercy, they should not simply desist from waging war against the Muslims and trying to force them to abandon their faith. They would be required to renounce their denial of God and their rejection of His Message. The most they can expect in return for refraining from attacking the Muslims and persecuting them would be a truce, but that would not be sufficient to merit God’s forgiveness and mercy. The unbelievers are, therefore, invited and encouraged to believe so that they may enjoy God’s mercy and forgiveness.

What a commendable gesture! Islam spares its staunchest enemies punishment and retribution, and instead offers them forgiveness and mercy in return for the simple act of joining the ranks of the believers. That would absolve them of all their previous misdemeanours, and cancel out the damage and the atrocities they had wrought against the Muslims.

The aim of war in Islam is to let people be free to uphold Islam and practise it, and never find themselves, by virtue of either direct force or the type of social, political or economic system they live under, compelled to renounce it. The growth and spread of Islam must not be hampered or restricted, and the Muslim community must be allowed the means to defend itself and deter its enemies from taking advantage of it.

No one who wishes to adopt Islam should feel threatened. If such threats are made, the Muslim community is collectively obliged to do all it can to eliminate that threat and secure the success of Islam.

“Fight them until there is no more oppression, and submission is made to God alone. If they desist, let there be no hostility except against the wrongdoers.” (Verse 193) These statements were revealed to deal with a specific situation in Arabia, when the pagan Arabs were persecuting an incipient Muslim community and stifling the spread of Islam. Nevertheless, they remain valid, and jihad is incumbent on Muslims until the end of time. Whenever a tyrant or an oppressive power emerges and prevents people from upholding Islam or seeks to prevent them from knowing about it, the Muslim community must rise against it and secure for all the right of freedom to know the truth, listen to it, and have the choice to accept it freely.

It is clear how severely these verses condemn oppression. It is considered a more repugnant evil than murder. This emphasis makes it clear that Islam views this matter most gravely. It establishes another crucial universal principle, heralding a rebirth of mankind, according to which man’s value is determined by his faith. Man’s life is always outweighed by his religious beliefs.

This principle also identifies the true enemies of humanity in this world. They are those who persecute believers and inflict suffering on a Muslim for no reason other than his being a Muslim. They are those who stand between mankind and God’s truth and guidance. It is these that Muslims are obliged to fight and destroy “until there is no more oppression, and submission is made to God alone.” (Verse 193)

This fundamental Islamic principle remains as valid today as it was when these verses were revealed. Islam remains a target for attack and vilification from various quarters. Muslims everywhere continue to be victims of aggression, oppression and religious intolerance as individuals and groups and, in some cases, as whole communities. All victims of oppression and aggression have the right and duty to defend themselves and seek to destroy their enemies, in fulfilment of this great Islamic principle which marked a rebirth of humanity.

It is only when the aggression or the persecution ceases or is eliminated that fighting must come to an end. “If they desist, let there be no hostility except against the wrongdoers.” 1 (Verse 193)

Having ruled on fighting during the sacred months, the sūrah now gives the ruling on fighting in the vicinity of the Sacred Mosque in Makkah. “A sacred month for a sacred month: for just retribution also applies to the violation of sanctity. If anyone commits aggression against you, attack him just as he has attacked you. Have fear of God, and be sure that God is with those who are God-fearing.” (Verse 194)

Those who violate the sacred months cannot expect guarantees of peace and immunity from attack during it. God had declared the Sacred Mosque a safe haven and a place of peace, and designated the sacred months a time of truce and security.

During these months no blood shall be shed, all sacred places and property shall be immune, and the safety of every living thing is guaranteed. Those who are bent on infringing this peace must not escape unpunished. The Muslims are instructed to retaliate in a measured way and within the limits dictated by the type and extent of the initial aggression. “If anyone commits aggression against you, attack him just as he has attacked you.’’ (Verse 194)

There should be no excessive retribution. Muslims are here left to their own conscience and their consciousness of God. They realize that their own victory depends on God’s help and support, and are therefore reminded that God is on the side of those who fear Him — a supremely effective safeguard.

Jihād requires money as much as it requires men. In those early days of Islam, fighters would provide their own fighting equipment, their own transport and their own food. They received no remuneration for their work, and freely offered their own possessions as well as their lives. This can only happen when the political, social and economic system in society is based on faith. The community would not need to appropriate funds to defend itself against internal or external enemies. Leaders and soldiers volunteer their efforts and their possessions to defend the faith and the community.

However, some of the less well-to-do Muslims who were keen to join the fighting but could not provide their own means of transport would go to the Prophet pleading to be taken to the battlefront. The Qur’ān tells us that when the Prophet did not have the necessary transportation or equipment to give them: “They turned away with tears in their eyes, sad that they did not have the means to contribute.” (9: 92)

For this reason, we find numerous exhortations in the Qur’ān and the sunnah urging financial contribution, whenever necessary, to the war effort. The call to jihād is almost always accompanied by a call to contribute materially and financially.

The passage goes as far as describing the reluctance to contribute financially as folly leading to self-destruction. It says: “Give generously for the cause of God and do not with your own hands throw yourselves to ruin. Persevere in doing good, for God loves those who do good.” (Verse 195) Miserliness and greed are indeed a form of self- destruction for the individual as well as for society as a whole. They result in deprivation and weakness of the whole community, especially one whose affairs are dependant on voluntary, self- motivated contributions.

The Qur’ān goes on to recommend even a higher state of excellence: “Persevere in doing good, for God loves those who do good” (Verse 195) The Arabic term used here is iĥsān, whose Islamic connotations are difficult to convey in translation. It is the highest level of altruism and self-denial. The Prophet Muĥammad defines it as:

“worshipping God as if you see Him with your own eyes; for, though you cannot see Him, He certainly sees you”. [Related by al-Bukhārī and Muslim] Once this stage of piety is reached, one will become a consummate devotee, utterly obedient to God in everything; and all one’s resources, energies and life will be entirely dedicated to God Almighty.

This closing comment is a befitting end for a passage dealing with fighting and giving for God’s cause. It urges believers to aspire to the level of iĥsān, the highest grade of religious excellence.

The sūrah then gives an outline of the rituals of the pilgrimage and the `Umrah (lesser pilgrimage). This follows quite naturally from the earlier account dealing with lunar changes and phases, and the admissibility of fighting during the sacred months of the year and in the vicinity of the Sacred Mosque in Makkah.

Perform to their completion both the pilgrimage and the `Umrah purely for God’s sake. If you are prevented from doing so, then make whatever offering you can easily afford. Do not shave your heads until the offerings have reached their appointed destination. If any of you is ill or suffers from an ailment of the head, he shall redeem himself by fasting, or alms, or sacrifice. When you are in safety, then he who takes advantage of performing the `Umrah before the pilgrimage shall make whatever offering he can easily afford; but he who lacks the means shall fast three days during the pilgrimage and seven more days on returning home; that is, ten days in all. All this applies to those whose families are not resident in the vicinity of the Sacred Mosque. Fear God, and know well that He is severe in retribution. The pilgrimage takes place in the months appointed for it. Whoever undertakes the pilgrimage in those months shall, while on pilgrimage, abstain from lewdness, all wicked conduct and wrangling. Whatever good you do God is well aware of it. Provide well for yourselves:

the best provision of all is to be God-fearing. Fear Me, then, you who are endowed with insight. It is no sin for you to seek the bounty of your Lord. When you surge downward from `Arafāt, remember God at al-Mash`ar al-Ĥarām. Remember Him who has given you guidance. Before this you were certainly in error. Surge onward from the place where all other pilgrims surge and pray God to forgive you. He is much forgiving, ever merciful. When you have fulfilled your sacred duties, remember God as you remember your fathers — nay with a yet keener remembrance. Some people say, Our Lord, give us abundance in this world.’ They shall have no share in the rewards of the life to come. There are others who say, ‘Our Lord, grant us what is good in this world and what is good in the lift to come and protect us from the torment of the fire.’ These shall have their portion in return for what they have earned; for God is swift in reckoning. Give glory to God during certain appointed days. Those who hasten their departure after two days incur no sin, and those who stay longer incur no sin, provided that they are truly God-fearing. Have fear of God and know well that you shall all be gathered before Him. (Verses 196-203)

The exact date of the revelation of these verses is not known, except for one report indicating that verse 196 was revealed at al-Ĥudaybīyah during the sixth year after Hijrah, 628 CE. Nor can we be precise as to when the pilgrimage was made obligatory in Islam, whether we take that to have been established by verse 196 of this sūrah or verse 97 of Sūrah 3 which says: “Pilgrimage to this House is a duty owed to God by all people who are able to undertake it.” In his book Zād al-Ma`ād, Imām Ibn al-Qayyim says that the pilgrimage was instituted during the ninth or tenth year of the Prophet’s migration to Madinah. This is based on the fact that the Prophet himself performed the pilgrimage in 10 AH.

This, however, is not sufficient evidence to support that view. There could have been other reasons that made the Prophet delay going on pilgrimage until the tenth year, especially when we know that he delegated Abū Bakr to head the pilgrimage during the ninth year.

It is also well established that on his return from the campaign of Tabūk, the Prophet intended to go for pilgrimage. However, he later decided not to do so, because non-Muslim Arabs were still doing the pilgrimage to Makkah and he did not wish to join them, not least because some of them would be going round the Ka`bah naked, as was their custom. At that point Sūrah 9, which brought the truce with the polytheist Arabs to an end, was revealed and the Prophet dispatched `Alī ibn Abī Ţālib to Makkah to proclaim its provisions to the pilgrims. He charged him with the task of announcing at Mina, when all the pilgrims were gathered, that: “No unbeliever shall enter paradise; no idolater may henceforth perform the pilgrimage; no one may go round the Ka`bah naked. All treaties signed with God’s Messenger shall run their course.” Accordingly, the Prophet did not go to Makkah for pilgrimage until the Ka`bah was cleared of all symbols and manifestations of idolatry.

One could point out certain texts as evidence indicating that the pilgrimage was instituted in principle much earlier. Indeed some reports suggest that this took place when the Prophet was still in Makkah, before the migration to Madinah. But this would not hold water. Nevertheless, verses 26-37 of Sūrah 22 list most of the pilgrimage rituals as they were communicated to the Prophet Abraham. These include:

When We assigned to Abraham the site of the [Sacred] House, [We said], Do not associate anything as partner with Me. Purify My House for those who will walk around it, and those who will stand before it, and those who will bow down and prostrate themselves in prayer. Proclaim to all people the duty of pilgrimage. They will come to you on foot and on every kind of fast mount. They will come from every far- away quarter, so that they might experience much that shall be of benefit to them, and that they might extol the name of God on the days appointed [for sacrifice], over whatever heads of cattle He may have provided for them. Eat, then, of such [sacrificed cattle] and feed the unfortunate poor. Thereafter let them complete the rites prescribed for them, fulfil their vows, and again walk around the Ancient House...Anyone who honours the symbols set up by God [shows evidence of] God-consciousness in people’s hearts. You have benefit in them for a term appointed; and in the end their place of sacrifice is near the Ancient House...The sacrifice of camels We have ordained for you as one of the symbols set up by God, in which there is much good for you. Hence, extol the name of God over them when they are lined up [for sacrifice]; and after they have fallen lifeless to the ground, eat of their meat, and feed the poor who is contented with his lot, as well as the one who is forced to beg. It is to this end that We have made them subservient to your needs, so that you might have cause to be grateful. Never does their meat or their blood reach God; it is your piety that reaches Him. It is to this end that He has made them subservient to your needs, so that you might glorify God for all the guidance with which He has graced you. Give good news to those who do good.

These verses make specific reference to offering animals for sacrifice, walking around the Ka`bah (ţawāf), the rites of iĥrām 1 (consecration), and the invocation of God’s name, all of which constitute the basic rites of the pilgrimage. The Muslims were addressed with these words as the heirs of Abraham, indicating that the pilgrimage had been instituted at an early stage as part of the legacy of Abraham.

The fact that Muslims, for various practical reasons, had not been able to perform the pilgrimage is beside the point. However, as mentioned earlier in this volume, individual Muslims had been able to perform the pilgrimage since the Ka`bah was re-instituted as the qiblah in the second year of the Islamic calendar.

Let us now take a closer look at the verses on pilgrimage in this sūrah and the instructive message they convey.

Perform to their completion both the pilgrimage and the `Umrah purely for God’s sake. If you are prevented from doing so, then make whatever offering you can easily afford. Do not shave your heads until the offerings have reached their appointed destination. If any of you is ill or suffers from an ailment of the head, he shall redeem himself by fasting, or alms, or sacrifice. When you are in safety, then he who takes advantage of performing the `Umrah before the pilgrimage shall make whatever offering he can easily afford; but he who lacks the means shall fast three days during the pilgrimage and seven more days on returning home; that is, ten days in all. All this applies to those whose families are not resident in the vicinity of the Sacred Mosque. Fear God, and know well that God is severe in retribution. (Verse 196)

The first thing to notice about this verse is the precision with which it treats the subject. It is divided into a number of short, well-defined instructions. Any exceptions or provisions relating to each ruling are made immediately before moving on to the next. The passage is rounded off with a strong emphasis on God-fearing.

The first article stresses the fact that once one has decided to perform the pilgrimage or the `Umrah, one must do so in full and dedicate one’s actions to God:

“Perform to their completion both the pilgrimage and the `Umrah purely for God’s sake.” Some scholars have taken this statement as instituting the pilgrimage as a religious duty, while others have understood it to be a mere instruction that once one begins performing the pilgrimage, one should go on to complete its rites. The latter interpretation seems more accurate, since the `Umrah is not universally considered by scholars an obligatory duty. Nevertheless, the order to complete the rites, once begun, applies equally to the pilgrimage and the `Umrah. The latter involves the same rites with the exception of attending at `Arafāt, but differs in that it can be performed any time throughout the year.

Exemption from completing the pilgrimage or the `Umrah is granted when one is prevented from doing so either by an enemy or, by illness or other exceptional circumstances. This is universally accepted by all schools of thought. The same applies to the case of being prevented from completing the rites. “If you are prevented from doing so, then make whatever offering you can easily afford.” (Verse 196) If prevented by force, a pilgrim offers a sacrifice within the means at his disposal. He would then be able to terminate his state of consecration, or iĥrām, at the point he reached, even though he might not have performed any of the rituals other than going into the state of consecration.

Such a situation arose in the sixth year of the Islamic calendar when the pagan Arabs prevented the Prophet and his Companions from entering Makkah and visiting the Sacred Mosque. The Muslims had camped at al-Ĥudaybiyah, about 25

kilometres west of Makkah, where eventually the famous truce agreement was signed between the Quraysh and the Muslims. It stipulated that the Prophet and his followers would be free to return for `Umrah the following year. Some reports indicate that this verse was revealed at that time, and, accordingly, the Prophet ordered his Companions to make their sacrifices at al-Ĥudaybiyah and terminate their state of consecration, or iĥrām. Some of them showed reluctance, finding it difficult to release themselves from iĥrām before making the offerings at the appropriate place. But once the Prophet took the initiative and offered his sacrifice there, the rest followed suit.

The verse refers to “whatever offering you can easily afford” This includes animals such as camels, cows, sheep, or goats. A pilgrim should sacrifice whatever he can easily afford, and several people may share in a single camel or cow. In the `Umrah of al-Ĥudaybiyah, as many as seven people shared in the sacrifice of one camel. On the other hand, one person may choose to offer a sheep or a goat, which would suffice.

The exemption serves to mitigate hardship such as that encountered at al- Ĥudaybiyah, or which might arise as a result of illness.

The essential aim of such a religious practice is to revive one’s awareness of God and draw closer to Him. If this is disrupted by threats from a hostile quarter, a disabling illness or the like, pilgrims are not deprived of the rewards they would have received had they completed the pilgrimage or the `Umrah. They are, therefore, instructed to proceed with making the offerings as if they had completed the intended rituals. This compassionate attitude is well in line with the spirit of Islam and its view of the purpose of worship.

Then follows another rule relating to the performance of pilgrimage and `Umrah:

“Do not shave your heads until the offerings have reached their appointed destination.” (Verse 196)

This, of course, applies under normal peaceful conditions. A pilgrim is not to shave his head, which precedes the termination of the state of consecration, or iĥrām, until he has made his offerings at the designated place and time. This is done at Mind on the tenth day of Dhu’l-Ĥijjah, after attendance the previous day at the plain of `Arafāt. Once the offerings are made, a pilgrim may release himself from consecration.

Here we have another exemption: “If any of you is ill or suffers from an ailment of the head, he shall redeem himself by fasting, or alms, or sacrifice.” (Verse 196) Islam is a practical and humane religion, and if there are grounds of health that would require shaving one’s head, one would be permitted to do so while in the state of iĥrām, even before the destination for offering the sacrifice is reached or the appropriate rituals are completed. The concession, however, is balanced with a compensation which has been set as a three-day fast from dawn to dusk, the feeding of six needy people, or slaughtering a sheep and giving its meat to the poor.

This is supported by what the Prophet Muĥammad said to Ka`b ibn `Ajrah when the latter was brought to him during the pilgrimage, having suffered a severe infection so that lice were crawling all over his face. The Prophet said: “I would not have thought you could have reached such a dire state. Can you afford a sheep?” Ka`b said he could not. The Prophet said to him: “Fast for three days, or feed six needy people, giving each half a şā` of food, and shave your head.” (One şā` is an Arabian measure equivalent to four times the fill of a man’s hands cupped together.)

The sūrah gives another ruling relating to the pilgrimage and the `Umrah: “When you are in safety, then he who takes advantage of performing the `Umrah before the pilgrimage shall make whatever offering he can easily afford.” (Verse 196) The sacrifice is required of those who are able to complete the rituals of both duties. Let us look at the matter in more detail.

One form of tamattu`, which is referred to in this verse as ‘taking advantage of performing both duties of pilgrimage and `Umrah, involves the performance of the `Umrah separately, prior to performing the pilgrimage. To do this, one sets off for `Umrah, goes into iĥrām at the appointed location, performs the rites of `Umrah, which include ţawāf around the Ka`bah and sa`ī between Şafā and Marwah, and shaving one’s head or trimming one’s hair to release oneself from consecration. One then waits for the time of the pilgrimage to re-enter into iĥrām, or consecration, for the pilgrimage. This is valid only if the `Umrah is offered within the appointed months of pilgrimage: Shawwāl, Dhu’l-Qa’dah and the first ten days of Dhu’l-Ĥijjah.

Another form of tamattu` is when one goes into iĥrām, at the appointed location, with the intention of combining both `Umrah and pilgrimage. On arrival in Makkah, the `Umrah is performed, after which the pilgrim maintains his iĥrām until he has performed the rest of the rites of the pilgrimage at the proper time.

In both cases, pilgrims are required to make such offerings as they can afford and are available. Animals such as camels, cows, sheep and goats can be offered for this purpose.

Those who lack the means need to fulfil an alternative requirement. “He who lacks the means shall fast three days during the pilgrimage and seven more days on returning home; that is, ten days in all.” (Verse 196) It is recommended that fasting should be undertaken over the three days before attendance at `Arafāt on the ninth day of Dhu’l-Ĥijjah. The other seven days of fasting are undertaken following one’s arrival back home, a total of ten days in all, as the Qur’ān clearly points out.

The idea here apparently is to keep the pilgrims’ hearts and minds attached to God during the interval between the `Umrah and the pilgrimage. The requirement of sacrifice or fasting perhaps aims to maintain the feeling of being closer to God in the period between the `Umrah and pilgrimage. Thus, lifting the restrictions of consecration, or iĥrām, after performing the `Umrah would not lead people away from the highly spiritual atmosphere that the pilgrimage generates.

Since those who live close to the Sacred Mosque are required to perform the pilgrimage only, and not the `Umrah, they cannot have the option of tamattu`. They have no sacrifice to offer and, consequently, the ruling of fasting ten days instead does not apply to them, either: “This applies to those whose families are not resident in the vicinity of the Sacred Mosque.” (Verse 196)

At this juncture the sūrah draws attention to a vital and fundamental aspect of man’s relationship with God. It exhorts: “Fear God, and know well that He is severe in retribution.” (Verse 196) The requirement for proper observance of these rulings would be an ever-present sense of God-fearing, and an appreciation of the awesome power of His retribution. By its very nature, iĥrām invokes a high sense of awareness” of God and an eagerness not to incur His displeasure, which must be maintained, with equal vigour and sincerity, during the interval when the pilgrims are relieved from the restrictions of iĥrām. Pilgrims are expected to remain vigilant and self-controlled throughout the whole period.

The sūrah proceeds to give further details of the pilgrimage rituals. It defines the time of the year in which it is valid and explains further the values to be observed in its performance. Like the preceding passage, it closes with an exhortation to fear God at all times.

“The pilgrimage takes place in the months appointed for it. Whoever undertakes the pilgrimage in those months shall, while on pilgrimage, abstain from lewdness, all wicked conduct and wrangling. Whatever good you do God is well aware of it. Provide well for yourselves: the best provision of all is to be God-fearing. Fear Me, then, you who are endowed with insight.” (Verse 197)

The text is clear that pilgrimage may be undertaken only within a specified period of the year, which extends over the months of Shawwāl, Dhu’l-Qa’dah and the first ten days of Dhu’l-Ĥijjah, the last three months in the Islamic lunar year. Accordingly — and this is the view held by the Shāfi`ī school of thought and attributed to the reputable scholars Ibn `Abbās, Jābir, `Aţā’, Ţāwūs and Mujāhid— iĥrām for the purpose of pilgrimage is valid only when undertaken during this specified period, known as the “pilgrimage months”. However, Mālik, Abū Ĥanīfah and Aĥmad ibn Ĥanbal, as well as Ibrāhīm al-Nakha`ī, al-Thawrī and al-Layth ibn Sa`d, hold that iĥrām for pilgrimage is valid all the year round. Nevertheless, they restrict the actual performance of the pilgrimage rituals to the period of the year specified in the sūrah.

The former view appears to reflect more closely the meaning of the Qur’ānic text.

Once a commitment is made to perform the pilgrimage, by entering into the state of iĥrām during the pilgrimage months, the would-be pilgrim “must abstain from lewdness, all wicked conduct and wrangling.” This is a call for total abstinence from all interests, preoccupations and behaviour that are in conflict with, or distract from, the spirit of total devotion and obedience to God which should prevail during pilgrimage. It entails rising above worldly pursuits, total devotion to God alone, and seeking to acquire the necessary humility when conducting oneself at His Sacred Mosque. Donning the unsewn garments of iĥrām is the signal that the pilgrim has discarded all that relates to worldly position or possession, including ordinary clothes.

Having pointed out what should be avoided, the sūrah conveys the reassurance that “Whatever good you do, God is well aware of it.” (Verse 197) This would be the greatest incentive for the believer to perform more good deeds, and to have God witness more of his devotion, which is in itself a source of contentment and recompense.

God then calls on the pilgrims to provide for themselves, physically and spiritually, in preparation for the challenging and demanding experience of pilgrimage.

It has been reported that a group of Yemeni pilgrims set off for pilgrimage without carrying any provisions for the journey, claiming that, since they were intending to visit God’s Sacred House, He would surely provide for them. This conflicts directly with Islamic teaching that while one should rely on God and put one’s trust in Him, one should also seek the necessary practical means and take all measures to look after oneself. Furthermore, such an attitude smacks of impertinence towards God; the implication that God is obliged to provide is one of condescending arrogance.

Hence the emphatic exhortation: “Provide well for yourselves: the best provision of all is to be God-fearing. Fear Me, then, you who are endowed with insight.” (Verse 197) The fear of God is a real source of both material and spiritual sustenance. It provides the human mind and body with strength, refinement and physical and moral support.

Those with insight and understanding would be the first to appreciate this directive and benefit from divine provision.

The sūrah outlines more pilgrimage rules. It explains that it is permitted for pilgrims to engage in trade or employment during the pilgrimage period. It also adds further elaboration of rituals.

“It is no sin for you to seek the bounty of your Lord. When you surge downward from `Arafāt, remember God at al-Mash`ar al-Ĥarām [the sacred landmark of Muzdalifah].

Remember Him who has given you guidance. Before this, you were certainly in error.

Surge onwards from the place where all other pilgrims surge and pray God to forgive you. God is much-Forgiving, ever-Merciful” (Verses 198-199)

Al-Bukhārī reports that Ibn Abbās said that this verse was revealed because people used to feel uneasy about conducting trade during the pilgrimage as they did in pre-Islamic days in such markets as `Ukāż, Mijannah and Dhu’l-Majāz. Abū Dāwūd also quotes Ibn Abbās as saying that the verse was revealed because people used to avoid trading during the pilgrimage season, as they considered it a time for worship and devotion.

Abū Umāmah al-Taymī asked Abdullāh ibn `Umar: “While on pilgrimage we offer transport services for hire. Is our pilgrimage valid?” Ibn `Umar said, “Do you not make ţawāf around the Ka`bah, do good deeds, throw the stones, and shave your heads?” When Abū Umāmah replied that they did all those things, Ibn `Umar said, “When the Prophet was asked the same question, he gave no answer until the angel Gabriel conveyed to him the verse which states: “It is no sin for you to seek the bounty of your Lord.” Abū Şāliĥ, an attendant of `Umar, the second Caliph, is reported to have asked him whether people used to conduct trade during the pilgrimage season. `Umar replied, “Indeed! People had no other way of earning a living!” This reluctance to conduct trade and business during the pilgrimage season is but one aspect of the new sensitivity and awareness that Islam had brought to people’s minds, giving them a new attitude towards their pre-Islamic way of life. Muslims would seek to know the view of Islam, or await instructions, before performing certain actions or adopting certain modes of behaviour, as explained earlier with reference to the ritual of sa`ī between the two hills of Şafā and Marwah.

Thus, trading and commercial activity, including letting and leasing, are permitted during pilgrimage. In fact, the Qur’ān describes such activities as a means of seeking “the bounty of your Lord”. Thus, anyone who seeks to earn some income through trade and business in pilgrimage should feel that he only seeks God’s bounty and that whatever he receives is given to him by God. It is not his own efforts that give him his earnings. It is God, the generous giver who gives us all we have. Once this is appreciated by the pilgrim, he will realize that even as he is trading, he is in a state of devotion to God which in no way violates or defiles his observance of the pilgrimage duties. Once this principle is established in believers’ hearts and minds, Islam allows them total freedom to pursue their interests, every one of which would in itself be considered a valid act of worship.

It is not by chance, therefore, that a verse dealing with the rituals of pilgrimage should also include instructions on earning through trade and commercial activities.

“When you surge downward from `Arafāt, remember God at al-Mash`ar al-Ĥarām.

Remember Him who has given you guidance. Before this you were certainly in error.” (Verse 198) Attendance at `Arafāt is the central duty of the pilgrimage. It is authentically reported on the authority of `Abd al-Raĥmān al-Daylamī that the Prophet Muĥammad said: “The pilgrimage is attendance at `Arafāt. [He repeated this three times.] He who arrives at `Arafāt before the break of dawn [on the tenth day of Dhu’l-Ĥijjah] will have fulfilled this duty. The days of Minā are three; those who depart after only two days incur no sin, nor do those who stay longer.” The scheduled time for attendance at `Arafāt begins at noon on the Day of `Arafāt, the ninth day of the Muslim lunar month of Dhu’l-Ĥijjah, and ends at the break of dawn the following morning, the Day of Sacrifice. Aĥmad ibn Ĥanbal, however, is of the opinion that the time begins at the break of day, rather than at noon, on the Day of `Arafāt. This is based on the report by `Urwah al-Ţā’ī that he had gone up to the Prophet, as he was going to prayer at Muzdalifah, and explained to him that having come from a long way away both he and his camel were on the point of exhaustion, and that he had done his best to stand at every hill he had passed, and wanted to know whether his pilgrimage would still be valid. The Prophet replied: “Anyone who has joined us in the prayer today and stands with us until we move on, having already been present in `Arafāt at any time, night or day, has completed the pilgrimage and fulfilled his obligations.”

The Prophet laid down this rule and extended the time to the break of dawn on the Day of Sacrifice, the tenth of Dhu’l-Ĥijjah, in order to distinguish Islamic practice from that of the pagan Arabs.

Al-Musawwar ibn Makhramah, a Companion of the Prophet reports that, in his address at `Arafāt, the Prophet began with praising and glorifying God before saying: “This is the grand day of pilgrimage. The polytheists and the idolaters used to leave `Arafāt before the sun had set, when it was still visible over mountain tops looking like men’s turbans. But we depart before the sun rises, our practice being distinctly different to theirs.” The established tradition adopted by the Prophet was to depart from `Arafāt after sunset. In an authentic ĥadīth related by Muslim, Jābir ibn `Abdullāh reports that “the Prophet remained at `Arafāt until the sun began to set, the sky reddened and the sun’s disc completely disappeared. With Usāmah behind him on the same camel, he was pulling hard on the reins of his she-camel until her head would hit the saddle.

He motioned with his right hand, saying, ‘Stay calm! Stay calm!’ He relaxed his grip on the reins at every hill so that the camel could climb with ease. On arrival at Muzdalifah, he prayed maghrib and `ishā’ with a single adhān and two separate iqāmahs. He did not separate the two obligatory prayers with any glorification of God. After that he lay down to rest until dawn, when he got up and offered the fajr prayer when the light of day began to appear. The prayer was preceded by adhān and iqāmah. The Prophet then mounted his camel and headed towards al-Mash`ar al- Ĥarām. There he faced the qiblah and embarked on a lengthy devotional prayers and praise of God until the light of day was bright. He then set off before the sun had risen.” This is the practice outlined in the sūrah as it says:

“When you surge downward from `Arafāt, remember God at al-Mash`ar al-Ĥarām.

Remember Him who has given you guidance. Before this you were certainly in error.” (Verse 198)

The Qur’ān exhorts Muslims to invoke God’s name following their departure from `Arafāt. It reminds them that this is part of the guidance God favoured them with, and that their actions are an expression of gratitude for that favour. They are also reminded of the gloom and despair that had marked their way of life prior to Islam:

“Remember Him who has given you guidance. Before this you were certainly in error.” Those early Muslims were fully aware of this profound truth. They were only a few years away from the pagan Arab way of life, with its lamentable religious ignorance and its worship of idols, jinn and angels, who were also conceived to be daughters of God, while the jinn were thought to be His in-laws. Such foolish superstitions had in turn led to confusion in religious practices. These included the unjustified and unexplained prohibition of the meat of certain animals, or the meat from their backs, and the sacrifice of children to idols, gods or jinn.

Pre-Islamic Arab life was plagued with a host of socially unjust and morally corrupt practices. The sūrah points specifically to one of them here, class distinction, by commanding: “Surge onwards from the place where all other pilgrims surge.” The Arabs’ decadence was also shown in the senseless and bloody tribal conflicts which at the time had totally undermined their position in the world. It was further reflected in the near-total confusion of their sexual mores, marriage customs, and family relationships in general. It was apparent in the injustice inflicted upon the weak by the strong, in the total absence of ethical or legal guarantees to restore the balance. Above all, it was manifested in the Arabs’ marginal existence and insignificance on the world stage, which had only begun to be redressed with the advent of Islam.

The Qur’ānic words, “Remember Him who has given you guidance. Before this you were certainly in error,” brought all that dark history back to the Muslims’ minds, and led them to consider their new life under Islam, to reflect on God’s grace in guiding them, and to appreciate its value and role in shaping their existence. This remains true for Muslims of all nations and generations. Without Islam they would fall into utter insignificance.

Islam has been the main force that has transformed Muslims’ lives and lifted them from tiny, subservient and confused communities to a great pioneering nation.

Muslims appreciate this transformation only when they sincerely and diligently adopt Islam and build their whole way of life on its principles. In fact, all mankind needs Islam’s guidance and blessings. This is confirmed, and highly appreciated, by those who come into the fold of Islam after having lived a different life. They find the contrast immeasurable.

As a believer in Islam reflects on the social philosophies and ideologies developed and adopted by various societies throughout human history, he is usually astonished by their triviality, misery, pettiness and confusion when compared with Islam. In some societies man, to his great disadvantage, seems to have chosen the reckless course of denying his instinctive need for God and His care and guidance. That is precisely what is being emphasized in this sūrah when God says: “Remember that He has given you guidance. Before this you were certainly in error.” (Verse 198)

Returning to the main theme of this passage, one can also describe the pilgrimage as the greatest gathering of Muslims from all over the globe. They are brought together under the single banner of Islam, abandoning all their former racial, cultural and national ties. The unsewn iĥrām garments they don when they are in the state of consecration are symbolic in more senses than one. All pilgrims wearing these garments stand on the same level, with no distinctions of tribal or ethnic kinship.

Islam is the only unifying factor:

In pre-Islamic days, the Quraysh used to give themselves certain privileges to distinguish them from the rest of the Arabs during the pilgrimage. They arrogantly referred to themselves as al-hums, or the pure. One such privilege the Quraysh had granted themselves was that they did not attend at `Arafāt, and so approached Muzdalifah from a different direction to that of other pilgrims. These Qur’ānic instructions eliminated this anomaly and bound the Quraysh to observe the same pilgrimage rituals as the rest of the Muslims, removing all false distinction: “Surge onwards from the place where all other pilgrims surge and pray God to forgive you. God is much-Forgiving, ever-Merciful.’’ Al-Bukhārī relates a report by `Ā’ishah, the Prophet’s wife, in which she said, “The Quraysh and those who followed its lead used to attend at Muzdalifah, and they were known as al-hums, while the rest of the Arabs attended at `Arafāt. But God’s Messenger was instructed to go to `Arafāt, spend the day there, and then leave it for Muzdalifah, and this is what the verse refers to.” Islam transcends kinship and class distinction, and treats all human beings as belonging to one nation; the sole distinction being their fear of, and obedience to, God Almighty. The pilgrimage ritual of iĥrām requires all pilgrims to abandon their usual clothing in order to appear equal, and it would be inconsistent to allow them to boast of their lineage or ancestry.

All prejudices and manifestations of pride and vanity must be discarded during the pilgrimage. Pilgrims are instructed to direct their devotion, praise and pleas to God, to pray for forgiveness for their errors and excesses, large and small. They ought to keep their minds, hearts and souls pure of all thoughts of lewdness, transgression, wicked conduct and wrangling of any kind. Through the pilgrimage, Muslims are educated in the wide fundamental principles of Islam: the equality of man and the rejection of discrimination on the basis of caste, race, language, or any other differences. Should they deviate or become negligent, they are urged to seek God’s guidance and forgiveness.

When you have fulfilled your sacred duties, remember God as you remember your fathers — nay with a yet keener remembrance. Some people say, ‘Our Lord, give us abundance in this world.’ They shall have no share in the rewards of the life to come.

There are others who say, ‘Our Lord, grant us what is good in this world and what is good in the life to come and protect us from the torment of the fire.’ These shall have their portion in return for what they have earned; for God is swift in reckoning.

(Verses 200-202)

Prior to Islam, the Arabs had no mission or message to take them outside the confines of the Arabian Peninsula. They would throng to the famous market places of `Ukāż, Mijannah, and Dhu’l-Majāz, not only to trade and exchange material goods, but also to display their tribal pride, eulogize their ancestors and celebrate their past glories. These were occasions for showing off their poetic and literary prowess. They had no other culturally or nationally significant pursuits to attract their interest or encourage them to mix with or explore other cultures and societies.

With the advent of Islam, however, they acquired a fresh outlook on life, a great responsibility, and a definite purpose. The Qur’ān prompted them in their new direction: “When you have fulfilled your sacred duties, remember God as you remember your fathers — nay with a yet keener remembrance.” (Verse 200)

The irony of this statement would not have escaped them. It ridicules their infatuation with their forefathers and instructs them to correct their behaviour by devoting their attention completely to God, and with far greater diligence. Just as they are required to abandon their normal dress for the untailored, plain garments of iĥrām, they are directed to break free from their racial and ethnic prejudices. It is made clear to them that devotion to God alone, and not to their ancestral glory, will take them to higher attainments in this world.

Man’s destiny is determined, and his credentials evaluated, according to how close his way of life is to God. “Some people say, ‘Our Lord, give us abundance in this world.’ They shall have no share in the rewards of the life to come. There are others who say, ‘Our Lord, grant us what is good in this world and what is good in the life to come and protect us from the torment of the fire. ‘These shall have their portion in return for what they have earned; for God is swift in reckoning.” (Verses 200-202)

There are two types of people: those who care only for the here and now and devote their energies to nothing else, and those with a wider vision and more far- Al-Baqarah (The Cow) | THE S ACRED M ONTHS , F IGHTING AND P ILGRIMAGE 247

reaching concerns, who are conscious of God and who seek happiness in this life without forfeiting their share of life to come.

Ibn `Abbās reported that this verse was revealed with reference to those Arabs who, on pilgrimage day, would pray for rain, or a good harvest, or a successful breeding season, but ask nothing of the rewards of the hereafter. Of course, its message is timeless and applies much more generally. Such people, who remain preoccupied with this worldly life even as they pray to God, are to be found in all human societies and generations. God, in His infinite wisdom, may well grant them some or all of what they wish for, but their share in the life to come will amount to nothing.

But those who say, “Our Lord, grant us what is good in this world and in the life to come and protect us from the torment of the fire,” are assured their full share of happiness and reward. They are polite enough not to specify the type of reward they seek, but will be content with whatever God grants them. His generosity is neither withheld nor delayed. The temperate and reasonable tone of their prayer assures them success and a generous response from God Almighty.

These divine statements clearly point to the direction man ought to take in seeking help and success. By wholeheartedly submitting oneself to God and accepting His judgement without doubt or hesitation, one’s good fortune is guaranteed both in this life and in the life to come. Only those who devote all their love and energy to life in this world will forfeit their reward in the Hereafter.

Islam does not require believers to abandon worldly pursuits altogether. Man has a vital role to play on this Earth. But in taking charge of the world’s affairs, man must be guided by God in order to see life in its wider dimension. Islam aims to free man from the shackles of material living, and help him rise above its limits and restrictions. Man is encouraged to apply his energies and abilities as the master of the world rather than its slave, and to transcend its trivial ephemera.

The passage on pilgrimage rituals closes with more exhortations to praise God and be conscious of His power: “Give glory to God during certain appointed days. Those who hasten their departure after two days incur no sin, and those who stay longer incur no sin, provided that they are truly God-fearing. Have fear of God and know well that you shall all be gathered before Him.” (Verse 203)

These special days are widely believed to be the day of `Arafāt (the ninth day of Dhu’l-Ĥijjah), the day of sacrifice (the tenth day), and the following three days. Ibn `Abbās suggests that the ‘appointed days’ are the eleventh to the thirteenth. `Ikrimah, however, interprets the verse as referring to the glorification of God following the regular daily prayers on the three days following the tenth of Dhu’l-Ĥijjah.

In the ĥadīth quoted earlier, `Abd al-Raĥmān ibn Mu`ammar al-Daylamī quotes the Prophet as saying: “The days of Mina are three; those who depart after only two days incur no sin, nor do those who stay longer.” Indeed, the days from the ninth to the thirteenth of Dhul-Ĥijjah are all equally suitable for devotional prayers and glorification of God, regardless of whether one includes the first or the last two days.

The common prerequisite is that one should “truly fear God”.

The passage ends on a significant note, reminding the believers of the Day of Judgement, to which reference is made in some of the verses on pilgrimage, thus arousing in their hearts a healthy fear of God. “Have fear of God and know well that you shall all be gathered before Him.” (Verse 203)

The preceding verses demonstrate clearly how Islam transformed the pagan Arab customs of the pilgrimage into a rich and meaningful Islamic ritual, ridding it of all idolatrous, sectarian and exclusive practices. It turned it from a narrow Arab tradition into a truly universal one: a typical Islamic form of worship dedicated to the praise and service of God Almighty. This is yet another example of how Islam can overcome and transcend all differences and distinctions that divide mankind.