In the Shade of the Qur'an by Sayyid Qutb

Revealed in Madinah, this sūrah is one of the last, if not actually the last1 Qur’ānic revelation. Hence, it contains final rulings on relations between the Muslim community and other people. It also includes the classification of the Muslim community itself, establishing its values together with a full description and outline of the status of each of its groups or classes.2

As such, the sūrah has a particular importance in clarifying the nature of the Islamic method of action, its different steps and stages. However, we need to review its final rulings in the light of the provisional ones given in earlier sūrahs. Such a review will show this method of action to be at one and the same time both flexible and firm. Yet without such a holistic reading, rules, pictures and judgements become very confused. This is what happens whenever verses that outline provisional rulings are taken to be final, while the verses giving final rulings are read in such a way as to match provisional ones, particularly in relation to jihād and the relations between the Muslim community and other groups. We pray to God to enable us to set the record straight and present a full and clear picture, both in this Prologue and in the discussion of the sūrah and its passages. From an objective study of the text of the sūrah in the light of the reports giving the immediate circumstances leading to the revelation of its different parts, as well as the various events during the Prophet’s lifetime, we can conclude that the sūrah as a whole was revealed in the ninth year of the Prophet’s settlement in Madinah.

However, we also have to say that it was not revealed in one single instance.

Although we cannot give a conclusive judgement of the accurate timings of the revelation of the different passages of the sūrah, we can say that its revelation occurred over three time stages: the first was prior to the expedition to Tabūk, which took place in Rajab of year 9, while the second stage extended over the period of preparation for the expedition until it was actually in progress. The third stage occurred after the Muslims had returned home. However, the first passage, from verse 1 to verse 28, was the last of its passages to be revealed, towards the end of that year, shortly before the pilgrimage season, i.e. either in the month of Dhu’l- Qa`dah or even in Dhu’l-Hijjah. This is in short what we believe to be the case.

In its first section, verses 1-28, the sūrah defines the final shape of relations between the Muslim community and the idolaters in the Arabian Peninsula, highlighting the practical, historical and ideological bases of these relations. All this is given in the inimitable Qur’ānic style, with its strong rhythm and the powerful impressions it creates. (See in particular verses 1-16, 23-24, and 28.)

The style employed in these verses, and in the passage as a whole, and the strong emphasis laid on fighting the idolaters in Arabia and the encouragement to take part in such fighting make it clear that at least a section of the Muslim community was very reluctant to take such a decisive step. We will explain here, and in the subsequent commentary, the different factors that came into play to cause such reluctance.

The second section defines the final shape of relations between the Muslim community and the people of earlier revelations generally, also outlining their practical, historical and ideological bases. The passage also shows the independent nature of Islam, as well as the deviation of the people of earlier revelations from the divine faith, both in beliefs and behaviour. Hence, from the Islamic point of view, they are no longer following a divine faith. (Verses 29-35)

The Qur’ānic style in this passage shows very clearly that the Muslims were particularly reluctant to adopt the type of relations defined in the first verse of this passage towards the people of earlier revelations generally, or the great majority of them. The fact is that the confrontation was initially intended with the Byzantines and their allies, the Arab Christians in Syria and beyond. This is clearly intimidating, considering that the Byzantine Empire was the main superpower of the day. Yet the texts apply to all the people of earlier revelations who have the same qualities and characteristics given in this verse. More of this later.

The third section begins its denunciation of those who have been called upon to get ready for the expedition, but who hesitated or were too lazy to join. Not all of these were hypocrites, as will be seen. This fact explains how hard the whole affair was for the Muslims. When we discuss the passage, we will, God willing, explain the factors making it so hard. (Verses 38-41)

We note in this passage the repeated reproaches, coupled with threats and reminders to the believers that God had supported His Messenger when the idolaters drove him out of his home town. No human being had taken part in providing such support. We also note the uncompromising order to the believers to join the Prophet and march with him, no matter what their position might be. All this gives us a clear indication of the hardships involved, leading to much reluctance, fear and an inclination to stay behind. Hence, the repeated reminders, reproaches and clear orders to the community of believers.

The fourth section, the longest in the sūrah, is devoted to exposing the hypocrites and their methods in undermining the Muslim community. It describes their psychology, as well as their attitude at the time of the Tabūk Expedition, as well as their previous and later attitudes. It exposes their true intentions, scheming and devious methods, as well as their flimsy excuses with which they try to justify their staying behind and their attempts to weaken the believers’ morale.

It also speaks about how they tried to hurt the Prophet and devoted believers. This exposure of the true nature of the hypocrites is further emphasized by a warning to the believers against the hypocrites’ schemes. The sūrah defines the nature of the relations between the two camps, which must be set on a clear basis that distinguishes each group through its own actions. This section, taking up more than half of the sūrah, shows that hypocrisy was more widespread after the fall of Makkah to Islam, while it had almost disappeared prior to that. We will explain the reasons for this later. (Verses 42, 47-50, 56-59, 61-68, 73-77, 79-85)

This sustained attack reveals the extent of the hypocrites’ scheming to undermine the Muslim community and to divert the attentions of the Muslims from pursuing their goals by means of false claims. It also shows that there were certain weaknesses within the ranks of the Muslim community during that period. This is indicated by the statement: “There are among you some who would have lent them ear.” (Verse 47)

Another indication is seen in the emphatic order not to pray for the hypocrites or appeal to God for their forgiveness. This situation was a by-product of the fact that large groups declared their acceptance of Islam, when they were not yet committed to the new faith. They had not acquired the proper Islamic attitudes. All this will come in for detailed discussion when we look at the classification the sūrah provides of the groups living within the Muslim community at the time of the Prophet.

We find this classification in the fifth section of the sūrah. We learn in this section that in addition to the leading group of the Muhājirīn and the Anşār, which constituted the solid base of the Muslim community, there were several other groups. There were, for example, the Bedouin Arabs among whom there were some good believers and others who were either hypocrites or unbelievers. There were also hypocrites among the people of Madinah. Others were those who mixed good and bad deeds and had not yet fully integrated into the Muslim community. Another group was of unknown status. This group is left to God to judge on the basis of His knowledge of their true nature. There were also some who conspired against the Muslim community under a religious guise. The sūrah speaks about all these groups in a brief but adequate way. It defines how they should be treated within the Muslim community, directing the Prophet and the believers to respond to them in the way so described. (Verses 97-103, 106-108)

That such a multiplicity of groups, classes and standards existed within the Muslim community at the time points to the extent of incoherence that existed after Makkah had fallen to Islam. Prior to the conquest of Makkah, the Muslim community in Madinah had almost rid itself of such weaknesses.

The sixth and final section of the sūrah provides a clear definition of the nature of the Islamic pledge the believers give to God to strive for His cause. It also defines the nature of this struggle, or jihād, and the duty of the people of Madinah and the Bedouins living close to them. It makes it clear that they cannot stay behind when the Prophet marches forth, seeking their own safety. They need to disassociate themselves from unbelievers and hypocrites. Within the context of this section a judgement is given on the cases of those who did not join the Muslim army, although they were good believers who entertained no hypocrisy. It also describes certain aspects of the attitude of the hypocrites towards Qur’ānic revelations. (Verses 111, 113-114, 117-118, 120-123, 127)

The sūrah then concludes with a description of God’s Messenger (peace be upon him) and a directive to him to place His trust in God alone. (Verses 128-129)

We have cited here numerous verses to refer to before discussing them in detail.

This is done deliberately because the sūrah paints a full picture of the Muslim society in Madinah in the days following the conquest of Makkah, describing its organic composition. It is clear from this picture that there was a lack of consistency in the way people approached faith, in addition to structural weaknesses. Certain phenomena are described, such as apathy, unwillingness to sacrifice, hypocritical attitudes, reluctance to do one’s Islamic duties, confusion with regard to relations between the Muslim community and others. None of this, however, detracts from the fact that the Muhājirīn and the Anşār constituted a solid base that showed no sign of weakness.

We have already mentioned that this state of affairs was due to the fact that after the conquest of Makkah large and divergent groups of people declared their acceptance of Islam, but did not receive the kind of education necessary for full integration within the Muslim community. But this general statement cannot be fully understood unless we review the historical situation before and after the conquest of Makkah, which we will now turn to.

The Islamic movement in Makkah encountered difficulties right from the time when it was born. Jāhiliyyah, represented in this instance by the Quraysh, soon sensed the danger it was facing from the message declaring that `there is no deity other than God, and Muĥammad is God’s Messenger.’ It realized that this new message was an outright revolution against all authority not derived from God’s own. It was a rebellion against all tyranny, seeking God’s protection. Jāhiliyyah also sensed that the new message, led by God’s Messenger, began to form a new organic grouping pledging sole and complete allegiance to God and His Messenger. Thus, it rebelled against the leadership of the Quraysh and the situation prevailing under jāhiliyyah.

No sooner did the Quraysh sense this danger than it launched a determined attack on the new message, grouping and its leadership. It utilized in this attack all its power to inflict physical harm and to sow discord through intrigue and wicked designs.

In fact this jāhiliyyah society sought every means to defend itself against a danger it felt to threaten its very existence. This is the normal state of affairs whenever a movement begins to advocate God’s Lordship in a community where Lordship is exercised by some people over others. Whenever such advocacy is undertaken by an organized movement that has its own leadership, it will be in direct confrontation with jāhiliyyah society, as the two cannot be accommodated within the same community.3

At this stage, every individual in the new Islamic grouping was subjected to oppression and persecution in every way, to the extent that many were killed. At the time, only a person who had dedicated himself and his life to God, and who was willing to endure persecution, hunger and even a ghastly death would join the new group, declaring his belief that there is no deity other than God and that Muĥammad is God’s Messenger.

In this way a solid foundation was established for Islam, comprising the most determined individuals in Arabian society. Others who could not endure the hardship succumbed to the pressure and reverted to unbelief. But there were very few of these because the issues were clear at the outset. It was only people of distinction that were willing to take the decisive step and join Islam, despite the great danger that such a move involved.

This is how God chose those rare elements to be the early supporters of His message and to form the solid foundation of Islam in Makkah, i.e. the Muhājirīn, then to join the early Anşār to form its core group in Madinah. Although the Anşār were not subjected to the same pressures and persecution as the Muhājirīn, the pledge they gave to the Prophet at `Aqabah indicated that they were equal to the task required by Islam. On that night when the pledge was given, as Ibn Kathīr reports, `Abdullāh ibn Rawāĥah said to the Prophet: ‘Stipulate whatever you wish for your Lord and yourself.’ He said: As for my Lord, my condition is that you worship Him alone, associating no partners with Him. And as for myself, my condition is that you protect me as you would protect yourselves and your property.’ They asked: `What will be our reward in return?’ He said: `Paradise.’ They said: `It is a profitable deal.

We accept no going back and we will not go back on it ourselves.’ Those who made this deal with God’s Messenger, seeking no reward other than Paradise, and declaring that they would accept no going back, either by themselves or the Prophet, were aware that it was no easy option they were undertaking. In fact, they were certain that the Quraysh would fight them determinedly, supported by all the other Arabs. They realized that they would never again be able to live in peace with jāhiliyyah which had its roots deep in the whole of Arabia, including the areas adjoining Madinah.

Jābir ibn `Abdullāh, a Companion of the Prophet, reports: For ten years in Makkah, God’s Messenger continued to approach people in their encampments at `Ukāz, al-Majannah and in the pilgrimage season. He would ask: ‘Who will give me shelter and support until I have delivered my Lord’s message, and he will be in Paradise in return?’ No one would extend to him a hand of support. Indeed, a man would be about to set out from the Yemen, or from his tribe of Muđar, and his people and relatives would warn him, ‘Beware lest the Qurayshi man tempt you.’ He would go among them and they would point to the Prophet with their hand. This continued to be the case until God sent us to him from Yathrib, when we gathered to him and believed in him. A man from among us would go to him and declare his acceptance of his message. The Prophet would teach him the Qur’ān, and the man would come back to his people and they would follow his suit and embrace Islam. Indeed, every quarter of the Anşār had a number of Muslims who declared their faith.

Then we all conferred and said: ‘Until when are we going to leave the Prophet approaching different people, being chased around and in fear?’ A group of 70 people from among us went out to meet him in the pilgrimage season.4 We agreed to meet him at `Aqabah. We went there individually or two men at a time, until we all gathered there. We asked him: ‘Messenger of God! What pledge do we give you?’ He said: ‘You pledge to me to obey and comply in situations of ease and hardship, and to donate for God’s cause in times of poverty and plenty, and to enjoin what is right and forbid what is evil, and to stand up for God’s cause fearing no blame from anyone, and to support me and protect me when I come to you as you protect yourselves, your wives and children. Your reward will be Paradise.’ We stood up to give him our pledges, but As`ad ibn Zurārah, who was one of the youngest among them,5 said: ‘Cool it, people of Yathrib. We have not travelled all this distance to meet him without knowing that he is certainly God’s Messenger. However, to take him from his people will be an act of confrontation with all the Arabs, which could mean that the best among you may be killed and that swords will be put into you. If you accept to take all that patiently, you take him and seek your reward from God. On the other hand, if you fear that you may slacken, leave off now, and explain your reasons. This may be better for you in God’s sight.’ They said: ‘Step aside, As`ad. By God, we will not turn away from our pledge, and we will not let anyone take it away from us.’ We stood up and gave him our pledges. He stipulated his conditions, and promised us that we will be rewarded with Paradise.6

The Anşār, then, were fully aware of the likely consequences of their pledge once they had given it. They were also aware that they were not promised anything in this world in return for their efforts. They were not even promised victory over their enemies. The only reward they were promised was admittance into heaven. Yet they were still keen to offer their pledges. Hence, they were definitely with the early Muhājirīn in taking the necessary preparations so that they would constitute the solid foundation of the first Islamic society in Madinah.

But the Madinah society did not maintain this level of purity despite the spread of Islam. Many people, especially those who were in positions of influence, felt they had to take a similar stand to their people in order to maintain their positions. When the Battle of Badr took place, the leading figure among these, `Abdullāh ibn Ubayy ibn Salūl, thought that Islam had established firm roots and could not be easily dislodged. Hence, he pretended to be a Muslim. It was perhaps inevitable that many accepted Islam in order to keep abreast of their people. They were not hypocrites, but they had not fully understood Islam or moulded themselves according to it. This meant that the community in Madinah had different levels of commitment to the new faith.

At this point, the unique Islamic method of education began its work under the Prophet’s supervision in order to mould these new elements. It aimed to achieve coherence within the Muslim community at the ideological, moral and behavioural levels.

When we read the sūrahs revealed in Madinah, in the approximate order of their revelation, we note the great effort that aimed to absorb and remould the new elements in the Muslim community, particularly because there were always newcomers. This was the case despite the determined opposition of the Quraysh and its attempts to win other Arabian tribes to its side, and despite the wicked designs of the Jews and their efforts to marshal hostile forces to the new faith and its advocates.

Hence, the effort to bring newcomers to the same level as the elite, for this was needed if they were to continue with determination.

Nonetheless, weaknesses continued to surface, particularly in times of difficulty.

There were indications of hypocrisy, reluctance, unwillingness to make physical or financial sacrifices, and a general turning away from danger. There were also signs of confusion concerning the relationship between a Muslim and his non-Muslim relatives. Qur’ānic texts in different sūrahs provide a clear idea of these phenomena and the method the Qur’ān employed to deal with them. Examples of these texts are given below:

Just as your Lord brought you forth from your home for the truth, even though some of the believers were averse to it. They would argue with you about the truth even after it had become manifest, just as if they were being driven to certain death and saw it with their very eyes. God promised you that one of the two hosts would fall to you. It was your wish that the one which was not powerful to be yours, but it was God’s will to establish the truth in accordance with His words and to wipe out the unbelievers.

Thus He would certainly establish the truth firmly and show falsehood to be false, however hateful this might be to the evildoers. (8: 5-8) He it is who has sent down to you the Book, containing verses which are clear and precise — and these are the essence of the Book — and others are allegorical. Those whose hearts have swerved from the truth pursue that part of it which is allegorical, seeking to create dissension and trying to give it an arbitrary meaning. None save God knows its final meaning. Those who are firmly grounded in knowledge say: ‘We believe in it; it is all from our Lord.’ But only those who are endowed with insight take heed. ‘Our Lord, let not our hearts swerve from the truth after You have guided us; and bestow on us mercy from Yourself. You are indeed the great giver. Our Lord, You will indeed gather mankind together to witness the Day of which there is no doubt.

Surely, God never fails to keep His promise.’ (3: 7-9)

Are you not aware of how the hypocrites speak to their unbeliever brethren from among the people of earlier revelations: ‘If you are driven away, we shall most certainly go forth with you, and shall never pay heed to anyone against you; and if war is waged against you we shall most certainly come to your succour.’ But God bears witness that they are most flagrantly lying. Indeed, if those are driven away, they will not go forth with them; and if war is waged against them, they will not come to their succour; and even if they succour them, they will most certainly turn their back in flight, and in the end will themselves find no succour. You strike more fear in their hearts than God. This, because they are people who fail to grasp the truth. (59:

11-13)

Believers! Remember the blessings which God bestowed on you when [enemy] hosts came down upon you, whereupon We let loose against them a stormwind and hosts that you could not see. Yet God saw all that you did. They came upon you from above you and from below you, and when your eyes became dim and your hearts came up to your throats, and when most conflicting thoughts about God passed through your minds. It was there and then that the believers were tried, and severely shaken. The hypocrites and those whose hearts are diseased said, ‘God and His Messenger have promised us nothing but delusions.’ A group of them said, ‘People of Yathrib! You cannot withstand the enemy here. Therefore, go back.’ A party among them asked leave of the Prophet, saying, ‘Our houses are exposed!’ The fact is that they were not really exposed. They simply wanted nothing but to flee. Now if their town had been stormed, and they had been asked to commit apostasy, they would have done so without much delay... (33: 9-14)

Believers, be fully prepared against danger, and go to war either in small groups or all together. There are indeed among you such as would lag behind, and then, if a calamity befalls you, say, ‘God has bestowed His favours upon me in that I was not present with them!’ But if good fortune comes to you from God, he is sure to say — just as if there had never been any question of love between you and him — ‘Oh, would that I had been with them; I would surely have had a [share in a] mighty triumph.’ (4: 71-73)

Are you not aware of those who have been told, ‘Hold back your hands [from fighting], and attend regularly to prayer, and pay your zakāt [i.e. the purifying dues]? When, at length, the order for fighting was issued to them, some of them stood in awe of men as one should stand in awe of God — or in even greater awe — and said, ‘Our Lord! Why have you ordered us to fight? If only You had granted us a delay for a little while!’ Say, ‘Brief is the enjoyment of this world, whereas the life to come is the best for all who are God-fearing. None of you shall be wronged by as much as a hair’s breadth. Wherever you may be death will overtake you, even though you be in towers built up strong and high.’ Yet, when a good thing happens to them, some [people] say, ‘This is from God,’ whereas when evil befalls them, they say, ‘This is from you!’ Say, All is from God’ What is amiss with these people that they are in no wise near to grasping the truth of what they are told? (4: 77-78)

The life of this world is but a play and a passing delight. But if you believe and are God-fearing, He will grant you your deserts, and will not demand of you to sacrifice your property. If He were to demand it of you, and urge you, you would niggardly cling to it, and so He would bring out your moral failings. Now, you are called upon to spend freely in God’s cause; but there are among you those who turn out to be niggardly! He who acts niggardly [in God’s cause] is but niggardly towards his own self. For God is indeed self-sufficient, whereas you stand in need of Him. And if you turn away from Him, He will cause other people to take your place, and they will not be the likes of you. (47: 36-38)

Are you not aware of those who would be friends with people whom God has condemned? They are neither of you nor of those others. They knowingly swear to a falsehood. God has readied for them severe suffering. Evil indeed is what they are wont to do. They have made their oaths a cover, and thus they turn others away from God’s path. Hence, shameful suffering awaits them. Neither their worldly possessions nor their offspring will be of the least avail to them against God. It is they who are destined for the fire, therein to abide. On the Day when God will raise them all from the dead, they will swear before Him as they now swear before you, thinking that they are on firm ground. They are indeed the liars. Satan has gained mastery over them, and has caused them to remain oblivious of the remembrance of God. Such as these are Satan’s partisans. Most certainly, the partisans of Satan will truly be the losers. Those who contend against God and His Messenger shall find themselves among the most abject.

God has ordained: ‘I shall most certainly prevail, I and My messengers.’ God is indeed Powerful, Almighty. You cannot find people who believe in God and the Last Day and [at the same time] love anyone who contends against God and His Messenger, even though they be their fathers, sons, brothers or their kindred. It is they [the believers] in whose hearts He has inscribed faith, and whom He has strengthened with inspiration from Himself and whom He will admit into gardens through which running waters flow, therein to abide. Well- pleased is God with them, and they with Him. They are God’s partisans. Most certainly, God’s partisans shall be the ones who are successful.

(58: 14-22)

Believers, do not take the Jews and the Christians for your allies. They are allies of one another. Whoever of you allies himself with them is indeed one of them. God does not bestow His guidance on the wrongdoers. Yet you see those who are sick at heart rush to their defence, saying, ‘We fear lest a change of fortune should befall us.’ God may well bring about victory [for believers] or some other event of His own making, and those [waverers] will terribly regret the thought they had secretly harboured within themselves. The believers will say: Are these the self-same people who swore by God their most solemn oaths that they were with you?’ All their works are in vain and they will lose all. (5: 51-53)

Believers, do not take My enemies, who are your enemies as well, for your allies, showing them affection even though they do not believe in the truth that has come to you. They have driven the Messenger and yourselves away, only because you believe in God, your Lord! If you have gone forth from your homes to strive in My cause, and out of a longing for My goodly acceptance, [do not] incline towards them in secret affection. I am fully aware of all that you may conceal and all that you do openly. Any of you who does this has already strayed from the right path. If they could but overcome you, they would remain your foes, and would stretch forth their hands and tongues against you with evil intent; for they desire that you should be unbelievers.

Neither your kinsfolk nor your own children will be of any benefit to you on Resurrection Day when He will decide between you. God sees all that you do. Indeed, you have had a good example in Abraham and those who followed him, when they said to their people: ‘We are quit of you and of all that you worship instead of God. We deny whatever you believe; and between us and you there has arisen enmity and hatred, to last until such a time as you come to believe in the One God.’ The only exception was Abraham’s saying to his father, I shall pray for God’s forgiveness for you, although I do not have it in my power to obtain anything from God on your behalf. Our Lord! In You have we placed our trust, and to You do we return. To You is all journey’s end.’ (60: 1-4)

These ten quotations, each drawn from a different sūrah are sufficient to give us a fair idea of the weaknesses that might naturally and inevitably appear in the Muslim community as a result of the constant influx of new elements. For it takes time and effort before they are fully integrated with the solid base of the community.

However, the structure of the Muslim community in Madinah remained generally sound, because it essentially relied on its solid foundation, made up of the elite of the Muhājirīn and the Anşār. This foundation gave the Muslim community its strong constitution that withstood all weakening elements and overcame all hazards that might have been brought in by newcomers who had not yet been integrated into it.

Gradually, these new elements were integrated into the solid core, and the numbers of the weak, the hypocrites, and those who lacked the ideological clarity that serves as the basis of all relations and ties dwindled. Shortly before the conquest of Makkah, the Muslim community in Madinah was very close to complete integration, providing the closest model of society Islamic education seeks to bring into existence.

There undoubtedly remained different levels of participation according to the various actions different individuals undertook for Islam. Some groups were distinguished by the dedication, work and sacrifice they made to serve God’s cause.

Examples of these were the earliest to believe in Islam among the Muhājirīn and the Anşār, the people of Badr, those who were party to the pledge given to the Prophet at al-Ĥudaybiyyah, and generally those who donated and fought before the conquest of Makkah. Qur’ānic and ĥadīth texts, as well as the practical situation in the Muslim community confirmed these distinctions that resulted from action taken for Islam.

• “As for the first to lead the way, of the Muhājirīn and the Anşār, as well as those who follow them in [the way of] righteousness, God is well pleased with them, and well pleased are they with Him. He has prepared for them gardens through which running waters flow, where they shall abide for ever. That is the supreme triumph.” (9: 100)

• “It may well be that God has looked at the people of Badr and said: `Do as you like, for heaven is indeed your deserved reward.” (This occurs in an authentic ĥadīth related by al-Bukhārī. It comes as the Prophet’s reply to `Umar when he requested the Prophet’s permission to kill Ĥāţib ibn Abī Balta`ah who, in a moment of weakness, sent word to the Quraysh telling them of the Prophet’s intention to march to Makkah.)

• “Well pleased indeed was God with the believers when they pledged their allegiance to you under that tree. He knew what was in their hearts; and so He bestowed inner peace upon them from on high, and rewarded them with the happy news of a victory soon to come and of many war gains which they would achieve. God is indeed Almighty, Wise.” (48: 18-19)

• “Not equal are those of you who spent and fought in God’s cause before the victory.

They are of a higher rank than those who would spend and fight after it, although God has promised the ultimate good to both. God is aware of all that you do.” (57: 10)

• “Take it easy, Khālid! Leave my Companions alone. By God, had you had Mount Uĥud in gold and you spent it all for God’s cause, you could not match a single trip of any one among my Companions, nor a return trip.” (This ĥadīth is mentioned by Ibn al-Qayyim in Zād al-Ma’ād. It is the Prophet’s reply to Khālid ibn al-Walīd when he fell out with `Abd al-Raĥmān ibn `Awf — may God be pleased with them both. There is no doubt that Khālid ibn al-Walīd is the man given the title Sayf Allāh, or God’s Sword, for his great achievements as a commander of Muslim armies. `Abd al-Raĥmān, however, was one of the very first people to accept Islam. Hence, the Prophet’s words in describing such a group of special distinction in the Muslim community of Madinah.)

That there were these different grades on the basis of strength of faith was no barrier to bridging the gap between them in the Madinah society before the conquest of Makkah. In fact, most of the apparent weaknesses within the ranks of the Muslim community were remedied, and their symptoms disappeared. Hence the whole of Madinah society could be considered as forming a solid Islamic basis.

However, when Makkah fell to Islam in year 8, followed by the surrender of the Hawāzin and the Thaqīf tribes, which were the last two large tribes to put up resistance to Islam, this ushered in a great influx of new Muslims. Needless to say, these were of different levels with regard to their outlook. Some among them were hypocrites, while others simply adopted Islam, the new overpowering force. Others still needed to be won over to Islam. Mostly, however, these were people who had not yet understood the fundamentals of Islam and their souls had not yet interacted with its values and principles.

The stubborn opposition of the Quraysh continued to act as a barrier preventing the advance of Islam into the rest of Arabia. The Quraysh tribe had the ultimate say in all religious matters in Arabia, and it exercised a very strong influence over economic, political and social matters. Hence its determined and uncompromising opposition to the new faith ensured that the rest of Arabia turned away from it, or at least adopted a wait and see attitude until the fight between the Quraysh and one of its children had produced a clear winner. When the Quraysh declared its submission, followed by the major tribes of Hawāzin and Thaqīf, and when the three main Jewish tribes in Madinah had previously been subdued, and those of Khaybar had been defeated, people embraced the new faith in flocks. The whole of Arabia submitted to Islam within one year.

This rapid expansion in the geographical area of Islam heralded the resurgence, on an even more intensive scale, of all the symptoms experienced after the resounding victory the Muslims achieved in the Battle of Badr. The Muslim community had almost managed to rid itself of those, thanks to the seven-year-long education process it had enjoyed after that battle. The rapid geographical expansion of Islam in Arabia could have had some serious negative effects, had it not been for the fact that Madinah had become, in its entirety, the solid base of Islam. It was God Almighty who looked after the new faith and charted its course. He had prepared the first core of believers, the Muhājirīn and the Anşār, to be the first solid base of Islam after the relatively important expansion that followed the victory at Badr. He also made the whole of Madinah the solid base which would withstand the great expansion brought about by the splendid triumph achieved when Makkah was won over to Islam. God certainly knows what forces to mobilize in support of His message.

The first symptom of the new dangers appeared on the day of the Battle of Ĥunayn, mentioned in this sūrah: “God has granted you His support on many a battlefield, and also in the Battle of Ĥunayn, when you took pride in your numerical strength, but it availed you nothing. For all its vastness, the earth seemed too narrow for you, and you turned back in flight. God then bestowed from on high an air of inner peace on His Messenger and on the believers, and He sent down forces whom you could not see, and punished those who disbelieved. Such is the reward for the unbelievers.” (Verses 25-26)

One of the apparent reasons for the defeat at the beginning of the battle was that 2,000 of those the Prophet had pardoned in Makkah, and who embraced Islam after the fall of that city, had joined the 10,000-strong army which originally travelled from Madinah to subdue the Quraysh in Makkah. The presence of those 2,000 men alongside the others who came from Madinah was a cause of imbalance in the Muslim ranks. There was also the fact that the Hawāzin took the Muslims by surprise. What that meant was that the army did not wholly belong to the solid, wellknit base which had been nurtured over the several years separating the Battle of Badr and the conquest of Makkah.

Similarly, the negative symptoms that appeared at the time of the Tabūk Expedition were a natural result of this rapid expansion and the great influx of new Muslims with varying standards of faith. These symptoms are discussed fully in this sūrah in a long exposition with varied styles and methods of treatment.

We now go on to review the historical events in the Muslim community within two years of the fall of Makkah. When the Prophet passed away, most parts of Arabia abandoned Islam. Only the Muslim society in Madinah, the solid base of Islam, remained steadfast. Now we can easily explain this phenomenon. Two years were not sufficient to allow the truth of Islam to settle in the hearts of the great multitude of people who declared their acceptance of Islam after the fall of Makkah.

With different levels of faith, the Prophet’s death sent a shock wave throughout Arabia, leading to uncertainty. The solid base, however, remained firmly committed.

Pure, strong and united, it was able to reverse the tide of apostasy and return all Arabia back to Islam.

This fact gives us a clear idea that God allowed the campaign of persecution mounted against the Muslims in Makkah to continue for many years for a definite purpose. In His wisdom, God left the tyrants of idolatry to continue their persecution to the extent of bloodshed, killing some Muslims and torturing many others. God knew that this was part of the proper education of the first Muslim community to form the solid base for Islam. Without such a long trial, people do not grow sufficiently solid to withstand great pressures. It is such a degree of steadfastness, dedication and commitment — in the face of torture, hardship, and killings, with people turned away from their homes, suffering hunger and hardship, yet being small in number and without any human support — that is needed by the hard core of the new faith as it makes its first march.

This hard core of the early Muhājirīn was subsequently joined by the early Anşār, and both groups formed the solid base in Madinah, before the Battle of Badr. They were the ones who remained strongly committed when elements of weakness appeared following the influx of newcomers who accepted Islam after the Badr victory, but who had not had time to integrate with the hard core or achieve its level of commitment.

The solid base itself grew in numbers so as to include, just before the fall of Makkah, the whole Madinah society. Again, this solid base was the one to protect Islam and spare it several pitfalls after the Makkan victory, and then again at the time of the Prophet’s death, when most parts of Arabia rebelled against Islam.

While this fact explains the wisdom behind allowing the hard trial the Muslims endured in Makkah and the great dangers faced by the Muslim society in Madinah, up to the time of signing the al-Ĥudaybiyah peace treaty, it also gives us an insight into the method of action the Islamic message follows at all times and in all societies.

All efforts should be directed at first to establish the hard core of true believers, who withstand trials and cannot be shaken. They need further education in their faith so as to grow in strength and awareness. Extreme caution should be exercised in order to guard against horizontal expansion before this hard core comes into being:

solidly committed and having profound insight. Indeed, shallow horizontal expansion represents grave dangers that threaten the very existence of any Islamic movement, because it would then be following a different way from that of the first Islamic community and adopting a different method of action.

Yet it is God who ensures that His message follows the right way. Whenever He wishes to allow a truly Islamic movement to emerge, He exposes its early advocates to a long trial. He lets victory be slow coming, and leaves them few in number, with other people taking a negative attitude towards them, until they show their steadfastness and firm commitment. Thus, they prove that they are able to form the hard, enlightened core who can be trusted with His message. He will then show them their way ahead. God is able to achieve His purpose, but most people do not know this.

Now we will have a brief look at the main topics addressed in the sūrah, particularly the final rulings concerning relations between the Muslim community and other communities. Since the rulings given in this sūrah are the final ones, they represent the ultimate line of action.

We need to quote here what we stated in the Prologue to Sūrah 8 (Volume 7) about the nature of the Islamic method of action. We can only understand the present final rulings in the light of the earlier, provisional ones. Even though this may be repetitive in this book, a reminder of these is certainly both useful and important.

In his priceless book Zād al-Ma’ād, Imām Ibn al-Qayyim includes a chapter with the title, `The Progress of the Prophet’s Guidance on Dealing with the Unbelievers and the Hypocrites from the Start of His Mission to the End of His Life’. This is given below in a highly summarized form:

The first revelation given to the Prophet by his Lord — limitless is He in His glory — was His order to him, “Read in the name of your Lord who created man out of a germ-cell.” (96: 1-2) This was the start of his prophethood. The instruction to him was to read within himself. At that point, He did not order him to convey anything to anyone. He subsequently revealed to him: “You who are enfolded, arise and warn!” (74: 1-2) This means that God made him a prophet by telling him to read, and He gave him his mission by saying, “You who are enfolded, arise and warn!” (74: 1-2) God then ordered him to warn his immediate clan. Subsequently, he gave the same warning to his own people, then to the surrounding Arabian tribes, then to all Arabs, then to mankind generally.

For more than a decade after the start of his prophethood, Muĥammad [peace be upon him] continued to advocate the faith without resorting to fighting or the imposition of any loyalty tax, i.e. jizyah. Throughout this period he was ordered to stay his hand, forbear patiently and overlook all opposition. Later, God gave him permission to migrate [from Makkah to Madinah] and permitted him to fight. He then instructed him to fight those who wage war against him and to maintain peace with those who refrain from fighting him.

At a later stage, God ordered him to fight the idolaters until all submission is made to God alone.

After the order was given to the Prophet to strive and fight for God’s cause [i.e. jihād], unbelievers were in three categories with regard to their relations with him: those with whom he was in peace and truce, combatants fighting him, and those under his protection [i.e. ahl al-dhimmah]. God ordered him to honour his treaties with those whom he had a peace treaty, as long as they honoured their commitments. If he feared treachery on their part, he was to revoke the treaty but would not fight them until he had informed them of the termination of their peace treaty. On the other hand, he was to fight those who violated their treaties with him.

When Sūrah 9, Repentance, was revealed, it outlined the policy towards all these three categories. The Prophet is ordered there to fight his enemies from among the people of earlier faiths until they submit to his authority, paying the loyalty tax, jizyah, or embrace Islam. He is also ordered in the same sūrah to strive hard against the unbelievers and the idolaters. He strove against the unbelievers with arms, and against the hypocrites with argument and proof.

A further order to the Prophet in Sūrah 9 was to terminate all treaties with unbelievers, classifying such people into three groups. The first group he was ordered to fight, because these were the ones who violated their treaties with him and who were untrue to their commitments. He fought them and was victorious. The second group consisted of those with whom he had a peace treaty which they had honoured fully, and the treaty was to run for a specific term. They had given no support to any person or group who opposed the Prophet. With these he was to honour the peace treaty until it had run its course. The third group included those with whom the Prophet had no treaty and no previous fighting engagements, as well as those who had an openended agreement. The Prophet was instructed to give these four months’ notice, after which he was to fight them. The Prophet acted on these instructions, fought those who violated their treaties, and gave four-months’ notice to those who had no treaty or had one without a specific term. Those who honoured their treaty were to have it honoured by the Prophet until the end of its term. All these embraced Islam before the end of their term. As for those who pledged loyalty to him, they were to pay the loyalty tax, jizyah.

Thus, after the revelation of Sūrah 9, the unbelievers were in three different categories with regard to the Prophet’s relations with them: combatants, or bound by a specified-term treaty, or loyal. The second category embraced Islam shortly thereafter, leaving the other two groups: combatants who feared him, and those who were loyal. Thus, all mankind were divided into three classes: Muslims who believed in the Prophet’s message; those at peace with him who enjoyed security; and those who were hostile and feared him.

As for the hypocrites, he was instructed to accept from them what they professed, leaving the final verdict on them to God. He was to strive against them with informed argument. He was further instructed to turn away from them and to be hard so that he would deliver his message to them in a way that they could not refute. He was forbidden to pray for them when they died, or to visit their graves. He was informed that if he were to pray for them to be forgiven, God would not forgive them.

Such was the Prophet’s policy towards his opponents, both unbelievers and hypocrites.7

This excellent summary of the different stages of the development of jihād, or striving for God’s cause, reveals a number of profound features of the Islamic approach which merit discussion; but we can only present them here very briefly.

The first of these features is the serious realism of the Islamic approach. Islam is a movement confronting a human situation with appropriate means. What it confronts is a state of ignorance, or jāhiliyyah, which prevails over ideas and beliefs, giving rise to practical systems that are supported by political and material authority. Thus, the Islamic approach is to confront all this with vigorous means and suitable resources. It presents its arguments and proofs to correct concepts and beliefs; and it strives with power to remove the systems and authorities that prevent people from adopting the right beliefs, forcing them to follow their errant ways and worship deities other than God Almighty. The Islamic approach does not resort to the use of verbal argument when confronting material power. Nor does it ever resort to compulsion and coercion in order to force its beliefs on people. Both are equally alien to the Islamic approach as it seeks to liberate people from subjugation so that they may serve God alone.

Secondly, Islam is a practical movement that progresses from one stage to the next, utilizing for each stage practical, effective and competent means, while at the same time preparing the ground for the next stage. It does not confront practical realities with abstract theories, nor does it use the same old means to face changing realities. Some people ignore this essential feature of the Islamic approach and overlook the nature of the different stages of development it contains. They cite Qur’ānic statements stating that they represent the Islamic approach, without relating these statements to the stages they addressed. When they do so, they betray their utter confusion and give the Islamic approach a deceptive appearance. They assign to Qur’ānic verses insupportable rules and principles, treating each verse or statement as outlining final Islamic rules. Themselves a product of the sorry and desperate state of contemporary generations who have nothing of Islam other than its label, and defeated both rationally and spiritually, they claim that Islamic jihād is always defensive. They imagine that they are doing Islam a service when they cast away its objective of removing all tyrannical powers from the face of the earth, so that people are freed from serving anyone other than God. Islam does not force people to accept its beliefs; rather, it aims to provide an environment where people enjoy full freedom of belief. It abolishes oppressive political systems depriving people of this freedom, or forces them into submission so that they allow their peoples complete freedom to choose to believe in Islam if they so wish.

Thirdly, such continuous movement and progressive ways and means do not divert Islam from its definitive principles and well-defined objectives. Right from the very first day, when it made its initial address to the Prophet’s immediate clan, then to the Quraysh, and then the Arabs and finally putting its message to all mankind, its basic theme remained the same, making the same requirement. It wants people to achieve the same objective of worshipping God alone, submitting themselves to none other than Him. There can be no compromise over this essential rule. It then moves towards this single goal according to a well-thought-out plan, with progressive stages, and fitting means.

Finally, we have a clear legal framework governing relations between the Muslim community and other societies, as is evident in the excellent summary quoted from Zād al-Ma’ād. This legal framework is based on the main principle that submission to God alone is a universal message which all mankind must either accept or be at peace with. It must not set up any impediment to this message, in the form of a political system or material power. Every individual must remain free to make his or her absolutely free choice to accept or reject it, feeling no pressure or compulsion.

Anyone who puts such impediments in the face of the message of complete submission to God, must be resisted and fought by Islam.

In the light of this excellent exposition we can understand the reasoning behind the final rulings outlined in this sūrah. These include the termination of treaties with idolaters, except for the ones with treaties specifying a term of expiry, provided that they had not violated their treaties or collaborated with others against Islam. Others who had open-ended treaties, or with no treaties, or who had violated the terms of their treaties are given a period of four months grace, during which they are safe. When this grace period was over, they were to be taken and killed wherever they happened to be found. They could not move in safety. We can also understand the rulings about fighting the people of earlier revelations who had deviated from the true divine religion until they are humbled and agreed to pay the submission tax. We understand the final rulings concerning jihād against the hypocrites, together with the unbelievers, and being harsh to them, unwilling to pray for their dead or stand over their graves. All these rulings amend earlier, provisional ones given before the revelation of the present sūrah. We believe that this amendment is now clear.

We cannot speak here in detail about these final rulings, or even about the provisional ones, or about other topics addressed in this sūrah. All this will come in for detailed discussion as we comment on the Qur’ānic text.

However, we need to clarify that those provisional rulings have not been abrogated in the sense that they can no longer be implemented in any situation the Muslim community finds itself in. The fact is that the practical situation faced by the Muslim community in different circumstances, places and times may determine, through absolute scholarly effort and discretion, which ruling is most suited to a particular situation, time and place. However, sight must not be lost of the final rulings to which the community should revert whenever it is able to implement them, as was the case at the time when this sūrah was revealed. These rulings were subsequently implemented during the Islamic conquests, in the treatment of both unbelievers and the people of earlier revelations.

Some defeatist elements are overwhelmed by the pressures resulting from the desperate situation of present-day Muslims, who have nothing of Islam other than its name, and from the wicked attack by the Orientalists on the concept of jihād. Hence they try to find excuses by relying on provisional rulings and ignoring the true basis of the Islamic approach that moves forward to liberate mankind from servitude to other human beings, so that they can worship God alone. Its aim is to destroy tyrannical forces and regimes which force people to submit to a rule different from that of God, and apply a law other than His own.

Such defeatists quote verses like: “If they incline to peace, then incline you to it as well, and place your trust in God.” (8: 61) “As for such [of the unbelievers] who do not fight against you on account of your faith, and neither drive you forth from your homelands, God does not forbid you to show them kindness and to behave towards them with full equity.” (60:

8) “Fight for the cause of God those who wage war against you, but do not commit aggression. Indeed, God does not love aggressors.” (2: 190) “Say: ‘People of earlier revelations! Let us come to an agreement which is equitable between you and us: that we shall worship none but God, that we shall associate no partners with Him, and that we shall not take one another for lords beside God.’ And if they turn away, then say: ‘Bear witness that we have surrendered ourselves to God.’” (3: 64)

They go on to say that Islam, then, does not fight anyone other than those who fight against the people in the land of Islam, within its area, or those who threaten it from outside. They further cite the fact that the Prophet signed the peace treaty with the idolaters at al- Ĥudaybiyah, and prior to that he had a treaty with the Jews and idolaters in Madinah. This defeatist logic means that Islam has nothing to do with the rest of mankind. It does not, or should not, care what deities they worship, or if one group of people are made lords over others, as long as it is safe within its own territory. This smacks of disrespect for Islam and God Almighty, resulting from a feeling of utter defeat.

What is worse, when these people feel unable to change the miserable conditions of today’s Muslims, or face up to international forces hostile to Islam, they do not see that their weakness is the result of their moving away from Islam. On the contrary, they persistently try to attribute their own weakness and defeat to Islam, the noble faith God has laid down for mankind.

The texts to which they resort are provisional ones, addressing a particular situation. The state of affairs they addressed may happen again. In such conditions, the provisional rulings may be applied because the Muslim community lives a similar situation to the one they addressed the first time. But this does not mean that these are the ultimate rulings, and the approach they follow is the final one Islam provides. What it means is that the Muslim community needs to persist in trying to improve its situation, removing any impediments standing in its way, until it can apply the final rulings given in this last sūrah. Needless to say, these addressed a situation entirely different from that addressed by the provisional ones.

In relation to the idolaters, the final statements say:

Disavowal by God and His Messenger [is hereby announced] to those of the idolaters with whom you have made a treaty. [Announce to them:] You may go freely in the land for four months, but you must realize that you can never escape Gods judgement, and that God shall bring disgrace upon the unbelievers. And a proclamation from God and His Messenger is hereby made to all mankind on this day of the greater pilgrimage: God is free from obligation to the idolaters, and so is His Messenger. If you repent, it shall be for your own good; and if you turn away, then know that you can never escape Gods judgement. Give the unbelievers the news of grievous suffering, except for those idolaters with whom you have made a treaty and who have honoured their obligations [under the treaty] in every detail, and have not aided anyone against you. To these fulfil your obligations until their treaties have run their term. God loves those who are righteous. When these months of grace are over, slay the idolaters wherever you find them, and take them captive, besiege them, and lie in wait for them at every conceivable place. Yet if they should repent, take to prayer and pay the zakāt, let them go their way. For God is Much- forgiving, Merciful. If any of the idolaters seeks asylum with you, grant him protection, so that he may hear the word of God, and then convey him to his place of safety. That is because the idolaters are people who lack knowledge. (Verses 1-6)

And in relation to the people of earlier revelations, the final rulings are: “Fight against those who — despite having been given scriptures — do not truly believe in God and the Last Day, and do not treat as forbidden that which God and His Messenger have forbidden, and do not follow the religion of truth, till they [agree to] pay the submission tax with a willing hand, after they have been humbled.” (Verse 29)

If the Muslims today, in their present situation, cannot implement these final rulings, then they are not, now and for the time being, required to do so. For God does not charge anyone with more than he or she can do. They may resort to the provisional rulings, approaching them gradually, until such a time when they are able to implement these final rulings. But they may not twist the final texts in order to show them as consistent with the provisional ones. They may not impose their own weakness on the divine faith, which remains firm and strong. Let them fear God and not attempt to weaken God’s faith under the pretext of showing it to be a religion of peace. It is certainly the religion of peace, but this must be based on saving all mankind from submission to anyone other than God. Islam is the code God has given to mankind so that they may elevate themselves to be worthy of it, and to enjoy its good fruits. It is not devised by any human being. Hence, its advocates must not be ashamed of declaring that their ultimate goal is to destroy all forces that stand in its way of liberating mankind from any shackle that prevents the free choice of adopting Islam.

When people follow human codes and apply man-made laws to regulate their lives, every doctrine and code has the right to live in peace within its own area, as long as it does not entail aggression against others. In this case, coexistence of different creeds, regimes and social orders should be the norm. But when there is a divine code requiring complete submission to God alone, and there are alongside it systems and conditions that are man-made, advocating submission to human beings, the matter is fundamentally different. In this case, it is right that the divine system should move across barriers to liberate people from enslavement by others. They will then be free to choose their faith in a situation where people surrender themselves to God alone.

Those defeatists twist texts in order to save themselves from their imagined embarrassment in trying to explain why Islam moves beyond its original borders to save mankind from submission to anyone other than God. They forget the great truth of a divine system based on submission to God alone facing man-made systems under which people submit to one another.

From the Islamic point of view, jihād has its own justification, derived from its own system. Defeatists will be well advised to examine this justification. Perhaps when they do so, God will give them added strength and a criterion which He has promised to His God-fearing servants.

Finally, unlike all other sūrahs, this one does not have the usual phrase we find at the beginning of each sūrah in the original master copies written at the time of `Uthmān.

Al-Tirmidhī reports that `Abdullāh ibn `Abbās, a close and learned Companion of the Prophet, said that he had asked `Uthmān ibn `Affān, the third Caliph who is universally recognized as having authorized the compilation of the Qur’ānic text as we have it today, why Sūrah 8, al-Anfāl, consisting of less than 100 verses, was placed before Sūrah 9, al-Tawbah, which comprises over 100 verses, and which, unlike other sūrahs, does not contain the usual opening phrase of “In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful”? He further enquired of him why Sūrah 8 was grouped with the seven long sūrahs [that appear at the beginning of the Qur’ān]?

`Uthmān answered, “The Prophet (peace be upon him) used to receive verses or passages from several sūrahs at the same time. He would call the scribes and instruct them to put specific verses at specified places in their respective sūrahs. Al-Anfāl was one of the earliest sūrahs revealed in Madinah while al- Tawbah was one of the latest, but their subject matter was very similar that I suspected they might be one sūrah. The Prophet passed away without clarifying this particular point. Therefore, I placed them one after the other without separation.” This report is the most acceptable explanation for the juxtaposition of the two sūrahs without separating them by the normal line of In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful. It also gives us a clear statement that the position of each verse in all sūrahs and the order they were placed in the Qur’ān was made on the basis of instructions given by the Prophet himself. More than one sūrah might be in the process of revelation at the same time. Hence, when one or more verses were revealed to address a particular situation or to outline or prepare for a definitive ruling, according to Islam’s practical approach and method of action, the Prophet would order that these verses be placed in their particular position in the sūrah in which they should be included. Thus, every verse was given its position, and every sūrah was given its proper order.

We have repeatedly said that each sūrah has its own character and features.

Moreover, each has its own ambience, and employs particular phrases that bring out in full relief its character and distinctive features. Perhaps the preceding paragraph and the ĥadīth quoted before it explain this clear Qur’ānic phenomenon.