Palestine A Four Thousand Year History by Nur Masalha

The Egypt-based Shi’ite Fatimid state invaded Palestine in 970, conquering the whole of country in 972. The Fatimid rule of Palestine was marred by great turmoil and upheavals. During this period al-Ramla was still the official capital of the province of Jund Filastin. But the city suffered badly from its occupation and pillaging by the Bedouins of Banu Tayy in Palestine in late 1024 as well as the two devastating earthquakes in 1025 and 1068. Although the city would recover in the middle of the 11th century and would remain an important strategic and garrison town for many centuries to come, its decline during the Fatimid rule and its subsequent replacement by al-Quds as the administrative capital of Palestine under the Ayyubids would inaugurate a new era in the strategic re-centring of Palestine in the post-Crusader era.

Political and military-strategic considerations played an important part in shaping the Fatimid regime in Palestine. A combination of political and military-strategic calculations were also factors in the reconfiguration of the perception and boundaries of historic Palestine before, during and after the Fatimid rule. These considerations, which were present in radically different historical periods, were evident:

• The creation of the new province of Syria-Palaestina by Hadrian in 135

AD following the defeat of the Bar-Kochba rebellion of that year.

• The fact that the Byzantine Dux Palaestinae, the ‘military commander of all of Palestine’, commanded all Byzantine forces in Provincia Palaestina (Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda and Palaestina Tertia) from the 4th to the early 7th centuries.

• The creation of the military-administrative Ajnads in al-Sham, Jund Filastin included, under Islam from the 630s onwards.

• The secret Ottoman strategic-military plan of Filastin Risalesi, prepared for the officers of the Eighth Army Corps in Palestine at the beginning of the First World War (to be discussed in chapter nine), for the combined defence of the three Ottoman sanjaks of Palestine.

• The secret Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916 between Britain and France which was designed to carve up the Near East between the two imperial powers; an agreement which would contribute to the shaping of the British Mandatory boundaries of Palestine.

Following the deteriorating military‒security situation in Palestine and tribal uprisings in the 1020s, strategic-military considerations by the Fatimid state seem to have contributed to the creation by the Fatimids of a new title: Mutawalli Harb Filastin, the ‘Military Governor of Palestine’ .(”متولي حرب فلسطين“)

The extent to which the responsibilities of Mutawalli Harb Filastin were separate from those of the traditional civil governor (wali) of the province of Jund Filastin is not entirely clear (Lev 2003: 46‒47). But, with echoes of the responsibilities of the Byzantine Dux Palaestinae, the Military Governor of Palestine commanded all the Fatimid military forces in the two provinces of Jund Filastin and Jund al-Urdun. Interestingly, a form of this military-strategic innovation, in the shape of the Military Governor of Palestine, with military responsibilities, did survive the end of the Fatimid rule in Palestine. The titles of mutawalli (military) and wali (civil) are often conflated during the Ayyubid period and in 1193 the title of mutawalli al-harb bi-Bayt al-Muqaddas, the Military Governor of Jerusalem, is found in Ayyubid Palestine (Humphreys 1977: 78‒79). In any event, however, the conception of the Military Governor of Palestine by the Fatimids and the rise of a Palestinian, Muhammad al-Yazuri, to become wazir (chief minister) of the Fatimid state in 1050‒1058, together with the evidence we have from the Arab-Jewish al-Fustat Genizah, all give rise to the impression that Filastin was perceived to be a key province of the Fatimid state.

Under the Egypt-based Shi’ite Fatimids in the early 11th century Islam in Palestine remained largely Sunni and senior Fatimid officials of the province of Jund Filastin resided in the capital city of al-Ramla:

Several Fatimid officials resided in Ramla during the Fatimid period (early eleventh century), including the governor, who is referred to as wali, meaning apparently the governor of Jund Filastin. The governor, through his military slave[-soldier] (ghulam), controlled the police force and kept contact with Cairo [Fustat] through the postal service, or the barid. The town was also the seat of the secret police (ashab al-akhbar) and the local Fatimid [Shi’ite] propagandist (da’i). Two other officials whose presence is attested to in the town were the fiscal administrator (‘amil) and auditor (zinumam), both of which were nominated by the government in Cairo. The social composition of the population in Ramla remains enigmatic, but there was a local Muslim elite made up of notables, judges and court witness … In Muharram 414/March‒April 1023, Anushtakin [al-Dizbari, an elite Turkish slavesoldier in Fatimid employ and a former governor of Baalbeck and Caesarea] was appointed as the governor of Jund Filastin, bearing the title of a military governor (mutawalli harb Filastin). The beginnings of his governorship were peaceful and, in April 1024, a large caravan of Khurasani [Sunni] pilgrims from Mecca travelled through Ayla [present-day ‘Aqabah] via Ramla and Damascus to Baghdad. (Lev 2006: 591)

However, the security situation in the two provinces of Jund Filastin and Jund al-Urdun deteriorated quickly and, in September 1024, tribal rebellion erupted over the terms of the tax collection (iqta’a) system, which had been granted to the Bedouin leader of Banu Tayy, Hassan ibn al-Jarrah, over the Beit Jibrin region in the province of Filastin. In the north of Palestine the Bedouins attacked and looted Tiberias, the capital of Jund al-Urdun. They also occupied al-Ramla, looting property, executing the soldiers of the local garrison and enslaving women and children. After plundering the city and destroying its soap and olive industry, Hassan ibn al-Jarrah set fire to the capital of Palestine: ‘The Bedouin conquest of Ramla was a bleak chapter in the history of the town’ (Lev 2006: 591). The tribal uprisings in the two provinces lingered sporadically for five years until 1029 and caused hardship and famine.

Although resentment of the Shi’ite Fatimid rule in Palestine was not universal or even evident among the Sunni ulema of Jerusalem, this resentment was very strong among the Bedouins of Banu Tayy and the Christian communities – the former for economic reasons and the latter for religious ones. In the early 11th century the Fatimid rule in the country was marred by a series of tribal rebellions, widespread insecurity and famine which, in addition to the severe earthquake of 1025, devastated Palestine (Gil 1996: 22, 25‒27). The destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the splendid church of St George at Lydda by the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in 1009 was part of general campaign against Christian places of worship in Palestine and Egypt. Fatimid policies adversely affected the province of Filastin and these policies became an impetus not only to local rebellions but also to the invasion of Palestine by the Seljuks in 1073 and the Latin Crusaders in 1099.

In 1029, five years after the Bedouin occupation of al-Ramla and four years after the 1025 earthquake, which badly damaged the city, and at the height of the Fatimid regime in Palestine, the severely affected province of Filastin was referred to in the old Cairo Genizah, a collection of Arab Jewish fragments of manuscripts that were found in the storeroom (genizah) of the Ben Ezra Synagogue in al-Fustat, then the capital of Egypt. Written in various languages, especially Arabic, Hebrew and Aramaic, the massive collection, which began during the Abbasid period in 870 AD and covers a millennium, became the largest and most diverse collection of medieval manuscripts in the world and a testimony to the flourishing culture of Arab-Jews under Islam. Al-Fustat was also the home of Ibn Maimun (Maimonides, 1135‒1204) the great Andalusian-born Arab-Jewish philosopher, Rabbi and head of the Arab-Jewish community in Egypt. In 1029

the Jerusalem-based Rabbi Solomon ha-Kohen ben Yehosef, in a letter to his son Abraham in Fustat, refers to the damage inflicted by the Fatimids on both the city of al-Ramla and the ‘land of Palestine’: Rabbi Solomon refers to ‘the infliction of famine, for no food is to be found in the land of Philistines [i.e. the Province of Filastin] and there are many poor’ (Gil 1996: 28‒29).

In 1029, the military commander of all the Fatimid forces in Palestine, Mutawalli Harb Filastin, Anushtakin al-Dizbari, brought an army from Egypt, collected local forces in Palestine and decisively defeated the combined Bedouin army at al-Uqhuwana near the Sea of Galilee (Grainger 2016: 246), an area which was part of the province of Jund al-Urdun. After these military successes, General al-Dizbari was the most powerful Fatimid governor of the whole region of al-Sham, Palestine included. He became fairly popular among the local population by forming alliances with the local notables and he managed to unite the whole region under a single Fatimid authority. Medieval Muslim historians have stressed al-Dizbari’s ‘just rule and fair treatment of the population in the towns he ruled as governor’ (Lev 2003: 55). For the first and last time, all of Palestine and al-Sham was ruled by a single Fatimid governor. He died in Aleppo in 1042.

Fifteen years later his grave was relocated to Jerusalem.

Although little is known about the political developments in Palestine in the second part of the 11th century, and prior to the Crusader invasion of 1099, letters from the al-Fustat Genizah show that Muhammad Hassan ibn ‘Ali al-Yazuri, from Yazur,12 a town east of Jaffa in the province of Filastin, and a former Governor of al-Ramla, served in the capacity of vizier of the Fatimid state, the second most important position after the Fatimid Caliph in Egypt, from 1050 to 1058. He was also personally involved in the affairs of the al-Quds (Jerusalem), the religious capital of Muslim Palestine (Gil 1996: 30).13

In the middle of the 11th century Muslim traveller Nasir Khusro (Khusrau), who visited Fatimid Palestine in 1047, produced an account of his seven-year journey (Safarnama) through the Muslim world of the 11th century (Diary of a Journey through Syria and Palestine). He wrote:

Sunday, the day of the new moon of the month of Ramadan (the 1st of March), we came to Ramlah. From Caesarea to Ramlah is eight leagues. Ramlah is a great city, with strong walls built of stone, mortared, of great height and thickness, with iron gates opening therein. From the town to the sea-coast is a distance of three leagues.

The inhabitants get their water from the rainfall, and in each house is a tank for storing the same, in order that there may always be a supply.

In the middle of the Friday Mosque, also, is a large tank; and from it, when it is filled with water, anyone who wishes may take. The area of the mosque measures two hundred paces (Gam) by three hundred.

Over one of its porches (suffah) is an inscription stating that on the 15th of Muharram, of the year 425 (10th of December, 1033 A.D.), there came an earthquake of great violence, which threw down a large number of buildings, but that no single person sustained an injury. In the city of Ramlah there is marble in plenty, and most of the buildings and private houses are of this material; and, further, … they do most beautifully sculpture and ornament. They cut the marble here with a toothless saw, which is worked with ‘Mekkah sand’. They saw the marble in the length, as is the case with wood, to form the columns; not in the cross; also they cut it into slabs. The marbles that I saw here were of all colours, some variegated, some green, red, black, and white.

There is, too, at Ramlah, a particular kind of fig, than which no better exists anywhere, and this they export to all the countries round. This city of Ramlah, throughout [al-Sham] and the West [al-Maghreb], is known under the name of Filastin. (Khusrau 1888: 21‒22)

In the post-Fatimid period, the first (Crusader) Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem was created in 1099 and lasted until 1187 and occupied much of Palestine. Yet the conception of Jund Filastin as an administrative province, as mentioned by the Muslim historian Ibn Shaddad (1145–1234 AD), a biographer of Salah al-Din (Saladin) and an eye-witness of the Muslim‒Third Crusade battles, survived until the Mongol invasion of Palestine in the mid-13th century. Its territory also seems to have been expanded from the 10th century onwards both towards the east in Transjordan and in the southeast (The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1965, Vol. II: 911; also ibn Shaddad 2002).