Hasashen Turawa game da Larabawa, Musulmai da Turkawa a matsayin "Wasu" masu duhu da shaidan ya samo asali ne daga yaƙe-yaƙen soja na Daular Usmaniyya a Balkan, kuma ya taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen ƙirƙirar "Wancan" da kuma samar da hoton kai: "Waɗannan halaye sun yi ta yawo a cikin yawancin tarihin Coci, da fitowar ra'ayoyin iko, da al'adun Turai da hoton kansu, kuma zuwa wani mataki an mika su ga Amurkawa."91

European perception of Arab, Muslims and Turks as dark and devilish Others emanated from Ottoman military engagements in the Balkans and played a most significant role in creating the Other, as well as in self-image making: “These attitudes thread through much of church history, emerging notions of sovereignty, and European culture and self-image, and to some degree were handed on to Americans.”91

Ƙazantar da wata al'umma tana jawo tare da ita jerin farfaganda. Labaran mahajjatan Kirista zuwa Urushalima sun nuna cewa kafin karni na goma sha biyu, babban labari na Musulmi a matsayin abokan gaba, a matsayin 'masu lalata Urushalima' da kuma 'arna', bai wanzu ba. Mataki bai riga ya kasance a shirye ba. Yanayin siyasa da ya shafi mamayar Seljuqs zuwa Constantinople da kuma neman taimakon Byzantine daga Paparoma Urban II a Faransa, ya haifar da wani tunani ko sake tunani game da Musulmi a matsayin abokan gaba na Allah wanda dole ne a yaƙa. Labarai huɗu da suka rage na jawabin Urban kowanne yana gabatar da wani sigar daban na abin da jawabinsa ya ƙunsa, amma haɓakar maganganun ƙyama ga Musulmi a bayyane take. Ya gabatar da birnin Urushalima a ƙarƙashin barazanar wata al'umma 'mugu' da ke aikata ayyuka 'abin ƙyama'. Masu yaɗa farfaganda na yaƙin Crusade, tun daga jawabin Paparoma Urban II a Clermont a shekara ta 1095 zuwa yaƙe-yaƙen Crusade na gaba a cikin shekarun da suka biyo baya, sun samar da hoton Musulmi a matsayin mai ɓata tsarkakan Kirista ba tare da addini ba, a matsayin azzalumin mai azabtar da Kiristoci, a matsayin mai bautar gumaka. Ware Musulmi ya fara kuma ya ƙara bayyana lokacin da aka ɗauke Musulmi a waje da iyakokin al'ummar wayewa ta al'ada, kamar dabbobi, abin da ke misalta a cikin "wanda suke yankan cibiyoyin waɗanda suka zaɓa su azabtar da su...", wanda aka ɗauko daga wannan labarin na jawabin Urban:

The vilification of a people carries with it a train of propaganda. The accounts of Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem reveal that before the twelfth century, a grand narrative of Muslims as enemies, as ‘despoilers of Jerusalem’ and as ‘heathens’, did not exist. The stage had not yet been set. The political circumstances involving the Seljuqs’ encroaching into Constantinople and Byzantine requesting assistance from Pope Urban II in France, set in motion a mental imagining or re-imagining of Muslims as the enemies of God who had to be fought. The four surviving accounts of Urban’s speech each present a distinctly different version of what his speech entailed, but the build-up of anti-Muslim rhetoric is unmistakable. He presented a city of Jerusalem under threat of a ‘wicked’ race who partake in ‘abominable’ practices. Crusade propagandists from Pope Urban II’s speech in Clermont in 1095 to further crusades in subsequent decades produced the image of the Muslim as a godless defiler of Christian sanctities, as a barbaric torturer of Christians, as an idol worshipper. The Othering of the Muslims had begun and became more pronounced when Muslims were outside the bounds of normative civilised society, as animals, which is illustrated in “who cut open the navels of those whom they choose to torment...”, taken from the following account of Urban’s speech:

“Wata mummunan labari ya zo daga yankunan da ke kewaye da Urushalima ... cewa wata kabila wadda ba ta da alaka ko kadan da Allah... ta mamaye kasar Kiristoci... Ko dai sun rusa majami'un Allah kasa-kasa, ko kuma sun maida su bayi ga al'adunsu. Suna shake cikin mutanen da suka zaba su azabtar, suna bude cikinsu suna barin hanjinsu a waje... Me zan ce game da mummunan take hakkin mata? Wa ya kamata ya dauki nauyin daukar fansa a kan wannan, idan ba ku ba?... Ku tafi hanyar Kabarin Mai Tsarki, ku kubutar da wannan kasa, ku mallake ta da kanku, domin wannan kasa, kamar yadda Nassi ya ce, tana gudana da madara da zuma... Ku bi wannan hanya domin gafarar zunubanku, kuna da tabbacin daukakar mulkin sama wadda ba ta shudewa.’ Bayan Fafaroma Urban ya fadi wadannan abubuwa... kowa ya yi ihu tare: Deus vult! Deus vult!, ‘Allah yana so! Allah yana so!’”92

“A grave report has come from the lands around Jerusalem ...that a race absolutely alien to God...has invaded the land of the Christians...They have either razed the churches of God to the ground or enslaved them to their own rites...They cut open the navels of those whom they choose to torment...them as they lie on the ground with all their entrails out.... What can I say of the appalling violation of women? On whom does the task lie of avenging this, if not on you?...Take the road to the Holy Sepulchre, rescue that land and rule over it yourselves, for that land, as scripture says, floweth with milk and honey...Take this road for the remission of your sins, assured of the unfading glory of the kingdom of heaven.’ When Pope Urban had said these things...everyone shouted in unison: Deus vult! Deus vult!, ‘God wills it! God wills it!’”92

Saboda haka, farfaganda ta taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen shirya yakin Salibiyya. Jawabin Fafaroma Urban na II ya yi amfani da hotuna masu tayar da hankali sosai don tada fushin ɗabi'a, kuma abin da ya fi fitowa fili a cikin jawabinsa shi ne nuna Musulmi a matsayin baƙi, wanda ya haɗa da ra'ayin ɓarna ga wuraren ibada na Kiristoci. Abin da ya wa'azantar game da zaluncin da aka yi wa sauran Kiristoci ne ya sa masu sauraronsa suka fahimci Musulmi, kamar yadda suka fahimce su. Duk da cewa babu wani tsararren zalunci da Musulmin Ƙasar Alkawari suka yi wa Kiristoci, jawabin Fafaroma Urban na II ya isa ya haifar da wani gagarumin martani mai zafi ga wannan kira.

Propaganda therefore played an essential part in the build-up to the crusades. Pope Urban II’s speech used highly inflammatory imagery to provoke moral outrage and what was most prominent in his address was the Otherising of Muslims and he connected that to the idea of despoiling of Christian sites. It was what he preached of the barbarity towards other Christians that came to inform his audience about who the Muslims were. Though there had been no systematic persecution of Christians by the Muslims of the Holy Land, Pope Urban II’s speech did enough to generate a mass passionate response to the appeal.

Tashin hankalin da aka yi daga baya a lokacin kewayen Antakiya da kwace Urushalima ya samo asali ne daga haɗuwar abubuwa, ciki har da tafiyar shekara uku, kishin addini, da wani tsananin banbanta da aka yi wa Musulmai. Mayaƙan Yaƙin Gicciye sun aikata wani mugun ta'addanci wanda ba a iya kwatantawa ba, kuma sun nemi tsarkake Birnin Mai Tsarki daga kafirai — Musulmai da Yahudawa.

The savagery later unleashed in the siege of Antioch and the capture of Jerusalem was a combination of factors including the three-year march, religious fervour and an uncompromising Othering levelled against the Muslims. The Crusaders unleashed an unspeakable savagery and sought to purge the Holy City of unbelievers – Muslims and Jews.

Mazaunan birnin an yanke musu kai, an soka musu kibau, an jefa su daga hasumiyai, an azabtar da su, kuma an ƙone su har lahira. Ƙungiyoyin da suka miƙa wuya ma an kashe su, kuma mata da yara ba su tsira ba. Mayaƙan Giciye sun kama jarirai da ƙafafunsu daga cinyar uwayensu ko daga gadajensu, suka buga su a bango ko suka karya musu wuya. Wannan hargitsi na kisa da lalata ya samo asali, a wani sashi, daga labarai masu muni sosai, kuma marasa gaskiya, da ake yaɗawa game da Musulmai a Ƙasar Tsarki. Wani shaida da ya gani da idonsa ya ce: "Ba wanda ya taɓa ganin ko jin irin wannan kisan kiyashi na arna, domin an ƙone su a kan tudu kamar pyramids."93 Tsarin rage wa mutane darajar ɗan adam yana bayyana sosai dalilin mummunan zalunci da aka sakar wa fararen hula Musulmai marasa makami. Mayaƙan Giciye ba su taɓa haɗuwa da Musulmai ba kafin kiran Paparoma Urban II, kuma rashin mu'amala tsakanin mutane a kowane hali zai hana su iya fahimtar yadda wani yake ji. A cikin farfagandar Giciye, Musulmai sun bayyana a matsayin kowane irin ra'ayi na maƙiyi wanda aka ware.

The inhabitants of the city were beheaded, pierced by arrows, plunged from towers, tortured and burned to death. Groups who had surrendered were also put to death, and women and children were not spared. The Crusaders “seized infants by the soles of their feet from their mothers’ laps or their cradles and dashed them against walls or broke their necks”. The brutal orgy of destruction was a result, in part, of the very negative though untrue stories told about Muslims in the Holy Land. One eyewitness said, “No one has ever seen or heard of such a slaughter of the pagans, for they were burned on pyres like pyramids.”93 The process of dehumanisation goes a long way in explaining the savage cruelty unleashed onto unarmed Muslim civilians. The Crusaders had not been exposed to Muslims prior to the appeal of Pope Urban II and the void of human interactions would in any situation disallow effective perspective taking. Muslims emerged in Crusade propaganda as every stereotype of an Othered enemy.

A cikin Inquisition na Spain a karni na sha shida, ana kwatanta Musulmi da sunayen 'Saracens', 'Hagarenes' da 'Hagarene beasts'. A daular Hapsburg ta karni na sha shida, an nuna Musulman Turkawa a matsayin "terrible Turk" da kuma abokin gaba mara mutunci. Mutanen Spain sun bayyana Moors a matsayin masu son dukiya da azabtarwa. A cikin takardun hukuma, ana kiran Moriscos akai-akai da "annoba," "cuta," "zazzabi," "gungun annoba," ko "dabbobi" ko "macizai" cikin "kirjin Spain." Wannan shi ne irin harshen da ake amfani da shi a rubuce-rubucen jayayya, da rubuce-rubucen da ake goyon bayan korar Musulmi. Ɗaya daga cikinsu, tsohon malami a Valencia, Fonseca, ya rubuta yadda "cin amana da munanan al'adu" na Moriscos ke gadona ta cikin "gurɓataccen jini da madarar uwarsu."94

In the Spanish Inquisition during the sixteenth century, Muslims were depicted as ‘Saracens’, ‘Hagarenes’ and ‘Hagarene beasts’. In the sixteenth-century Hapsburg Empire, Muslim Turks were portrayed as “terrible Turk” and as a subhuman enemy. Spaniards described the Moors as greedy and sadistic. In official documents, the Moriscos were routinely referred to as a “pestilence,” a “plague,” a “fever,” a “pestilential horde,” or “beasts” or “vipers” within the “bosom of Spain.” This was the kind of language used in polemic texts, in texts written in support of the expulsion of Muslims. One of them, a former preacher in Valencia, Fonseca wrote how the “treason and bad customs” of the Moriscos were inherited in their “corrupted blood and their mother’s milk.”94

Ra'ayin "Othering" da rashin ɗan'adam (dehumanisation) yana da muhimmanci sosai wajen fahimtar akidar da ke bayan kisan kare dangi da aka yi wa Musulmai a Bosnia (1992-95). Wannan ra'ayi yana da matuƙar muhimmanci wajen fahimtar tunanin Brenton Tarrant, wanda ya aikata harin ta'addancin Christchurch a New Zealand, wanda ya kashe mutum 50 Musulmai da ke sallah a Masallacin Al Noor da kuma Cibiyar Musulunci ta Linwood a 2019. A cikin rubutun Tarrant (manifesto), akwai wani zurfafan jin "othering" ga Musulmai da ya bayyana a fili. Akwai abubuwa da yawa da ke haɗa shugaban kisan kare dangin Bosnia, Radovan Karadžić, da Tarrant. Radovan Karadžić ya shahara wajen kwatanta Musulmai na Bosnia da datti, da maciya amana, da kwari masu buƙatar a shafe su gaba ɗaya. A kalaman Biljana Plavsić, mataimakin Karadžić, "abu ne na asalin halitta (ƙabilar Sabiya) mai lalacewa wanda ya rungumi Musulunci."95

The concept of Othering and dehumanisation is central to understanding the ideology behind the genocide of Muslims in Bosnia (1992-95). This concept is critical in understanding the mindset of the New Zealand mosque gunman Brenton Tarrant, who carried out the Christchurch terror attack which claimed the lives of 50 Muslims praying at the Al Noor Mosque and the Linwood Islamic Centre in 2019. There existed an entrenched sense of othering of Muslims in Tarrant’s manifesto. There is much that connects the mastermind of the Bosnian genocide, Radovan Karadžić and Tarrant. Radovan Karadžić was infamous in describing Bosnian Muslims as filth, as traitors and vermin that needed to be annihilated. In the words of Biljana Plavsić, Karadžić’s deputy, “It was [Serb] genetically deformed material that embraced Islam.”95

Kamanceniya da dehumanisation na Yahudawa a lokacin Holocaust suna da yawa da kuma kama sosai. An cire wa Musulmai duk darajar ɗan adam, aka mai da su baƙi, ƙasƙanta kuma abin ƙyama. Wannan hali game da maƙwabtansu Musulmai a hankali ya canja. Duk wata kyakkyawar mu'amala ta maƙwabta yanzu ta zama abin shakka, kuma Musulmin da ke cikin hoton ya sha wani canji a tunanin masu aikata laifi na Sabiyawan Bosniya. Tsarin dehumanisation an aiwatar da shi ta hanyar ƙoƙari mai haɗin gwiwa na mayar da Musulmai Bosniya saurara, ta hanyar ƙungiyoyin siyasa, addini da na ilimi na manyan Sabiyawa, sannan aka mai da shi al'ada a kafafen yaɗa labarai. Farfaganda mai raba kan jama'a ta zama salon zamani ga kafafen yaɗa labarai na Sabiyawa da na Sabiyawan Bosniya, wajen mayar da waɗanda aka cutar saurara.

The parallels with the dehumanising of Jews in the Holocaust are all too similar. Muslims were stripped of all human value and rendered alien, inferior and hideous. This attitude towards their Muslim neighbours slowly transformed. Any innocent neighbourly pleasantries were now suspect, the Muslim in the frame underwent a metamorphosis in the mind of Bosnian Serb perpetrators. The process of dehumanisation was implemented through a concerted effort of Othering the Bosnian Muslims by political, religious and intellectual strands of the Serb elite, and then normalised in the media. Polarising propaganda became the flavour of the day for Serbian and Bosnian Serb media to Otherise their victims.

A wani mummunan misali da ke nuna irin girman yadda "Othering" (raba mutane zuwa "mu" da "su") ke zama hanya ta halasta tashin hankali shi ne kewayen birnin Sarajevo. Gidan talabijin na gwamnati na Belgrade ya watsa wani labari na karya da aka yi niyyar yada ƙiyayya da kuma barata kewayen, ciki har da wannan layi: "Masu tsattsauran ra'ayin Musulunci sun ƙirƙiro mafi munin hanyar azabtar da mutane a duniya. Jiya da dare sun ciyar da yaran Sabiyawa ga zakuna a gidan namun daji na 'Pionirska Dolina' da ke birnin."96

In one horrifying case which reflects the extent of Othering as a process to legitimise violence is the siege of Sarajevo. The state-run Belgrade TV aired a false story intended to fuel hatred and justify the siege, including the line: “Muslim extremists have come up with the most horrifying way in the world of torturing people. Last night they fed the Serb children to the lions in the city’s ‘Pionirska Dolina’ zoo.”96

An wannan labari an ruwaito shi a labaran maraice, kuma miliyoyin masu kallo ne suka kalle shi. Masu aikata laifin sun yi imanin cewa halakar al'ummar Musulmi aiki ne wajibi da Gwamnati ke bukata, kuma cewa kasancewar "mahara" Musulmi na barazana ga 'yancinsu da tsaron kansu. Tsarin nuna bambanci da kebe wasu mutane (Othering) ya cika.

This was reported on the evening news and was watched by several million viewers. The perpetrators were led to think that the annihilation of the Muslim people was necessary work demanded of the State and that their own freedom and security was compromised by the presence of Muslim “invaders”. The process of Othering was complete.

A cikin wata tattaunawa da aka tsare daga watan Oktoba na 1991 tsakaninsa da wani abokin aikinsa na kusa, Karadžić ya bayyana a fili cewa:

In an intercepted conversation with a close associate from October 1991, Karadžić made clear:

"Musulmi za su ɓace, wannan jama'a za ta ɓace daga fuskar duniya idan sun fara yanzu. Tayinmu ita ce kawai damarsu. Za su nutse har wuya cikin jini, kuma al'ummar Musulmi [a BiH] za ta ɓace. Cikin ƴan kwanaki kaɗan, Sarajevo za ta ƙare kuma za a sami mutum ɗari biyar dubu da suka mutu; cikin wata ɗaya kuma za a shafe Musulmi gaba ɗaya a BiH."97

“Muslims will disappear, that people will disappear from the face of the earth if they start now. Our offer was their only chance. They will be up to their necks in blood and the Muslim people [in BiH] would disappear. In just a couple of days, Sarajevo will be gone and there will be five hundred thousand dead, in one month Muslims will be annihilated in BiH.”97

Karadžić ya yi magana a kan akidar "’yan’uwantaka da haɗin kai" da kuma haɗuwar al'ummomi, maimakon haka ya bar salon magana na wahala ya tsara martanin Sabiyawa.

Karadžić spoke against an ideology of “brotherhood and unity” and the mixing of communities, and instead allowed a discourse of victimhood to frame the Serbian response.

Ya zaɓi misalan wahalar da Sabiyawa suka sha a hannun Ottomans, ya kuma saƙa labari na firgita wa mutanensa. Ya yi amfani da hakan wajen haifar da tsoron Musulmai, tsoron Wani, wanda ya haɗa masu aikata kisan kiyashi na Sabiyawan Bosnia da kisan kiyashin da suka yi. A cikin roƙon laifinta a gaban ICTY, Biljana Plavsić ta bayyana cewa:

He picked out examples of Serb suffering at the hands of the Ottomans and wove a narrative of traumatisation of his own people. He played on generating a fear of the Muslims, a fear of the Other, which connected the Bosnia Serb perpetrators in their genocide. In Biljana Plavsić’s guilty plea before the ICTY, she explained:

"A lokacin, na sauƙaƙa wa kaina yarda cewa wannan al'amari ne na tsira da kare kai. A gaskiya, ya fi haka. Shugabancinmu, wanda ni ma wani muhimmin ɓangare ne na shi, ya jagoranci wani yunƙuri wanda ya cutar da mutane marasa adadi marasa laifi. Bayanan kare kai da tsira ba sa ba da wani uzuri. A ƙarshe, an ce, har a cikin mutanenmu, cewa a cikin wannan yaƙi mun rasa martabar ɗabi'armu. Tambayoyin da suke bayyana su ne: idan wannan gaskiya ta bayyana yanzu, don me ban gan ta ba tun farko? Kuma yaya shugabanninmu da waɗanda suka biyo baya suka iya aikata irin waɗannan ayyuka? Amsar tambayoyin biyu, ina ganin, ita ce tsoro, tsoro mai makanta wanda ya kai ga wani hauka, musamman ga mu da Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu ya kasance abin tunawa a rayuwarmu, cewa Sabiyawa ba za su sake barin kansu su zama waɗanda ake cutarwa ba. Ta haka, mu shugabannin muka keta mafi asalin aikin kowane ɗan Adam, wato aikin riƙe kai da girmama mutuncin ɗan adam na wasu. Mun ɗauki alƙawarin yin duk abin da ya zama dole domin mu yi nasara."98

“At the time, I easily convinced myself that this was a matter of survival and self-defence. In fact, it was more. Our leadership, of which I was a necessary part, led an effort which victimised countless innocent people. Explanations of self-defence and survival offer no justification. By the end, it was said, even among our own people, that in this war we had lost our nobility of character. The obvious questions become: if this truth is now self-evident, why did I not see it earlier? And how could our leaders and those who followed have committed such acts? The answer to both questions is, I believe, fear, a blinding fear that led to an obsession, especially for those of us for whom the Second World War was a living memory, that Serbs would never again allow themselves to become victims. In this, we in the leadership violated the most basic duty of every human being, the duty to restrain oneself and to respect the human dignity of others. We were committed to do whatever was necessary to prevail.”98

A cikin burin kafa ƙasar Sabiyawa a yammacin Drina, Sabiyawan Bosniya sun ga ya zama wajibi su raba kansu da al'ummar Musulmi, kuma sun yi imani cewa hakan yana nufin kawar da waɗannan Musulmi gaba ɗaya. Irin wannan aiki ba zai yiwu ba sai da farko an mayar da al'ummar Musulmi saniyar ware har ya zama masu aikata laifin ba sa ganin su a matsayin mutane, sai dai kamar beraye da ya kamata a kashe. Karadžić ne ke da alhakin kafa wani shirin dabarar gwamnati na mayar da mutane marasa mutunci, wanda kuma ya zama abin koyi ga masu tsattsauran ra'ayin kishin ƙasa a yau.

To achieve the goals of a Serb state west of Drina, Bosnian Serbs deemed it necessary to separate themselves from the Muslim population and they believed this meant the extermination of those Muslims. Such an undertaking could not be possible without first dehumanising the Muslim population to such an extent that perpetrators would no longer see them as human beings, but as rodents that needed to be killed. Karadžić is responsible for putting in place a state-run program of dehumanisation that serves as inspiration for far-right nationalists today.

Brenton Tarrant, mai kisan gilla a Christchurch, ya samu wahayi sosai daga Radovan Karadžić, wanda aka yanke wa hukuncin laifukan yaƙi. A hanyarsa zuwa ga kisan gillar da ya yi, Tarrant ya kunna wata waƙar kishin ƙasar Sabiya wadda ake ɗaukaka Radovan Karadzic a cikinta, ana kira gare shi ya jagoranci Sabiyawa. Waƙar ta ƙara ɗaukaka mayaƙan Sabiya, tana kuma kira ga kashe Turkawa, sunan da masu tsattsauran ra'ayin kishin Sabiya ke amfani da shi wajen nufin Musulmin Bosniya. Littafin manifesto na Tarrant mai suna 'The Great Replacement' ya bayyana cewa manufar harinsa ita ce tayar da tsoro, kuma yana kira ga kashe Musulmi a Turai. Yana yi wa Turkawa barazana, yana kiran su da kalmar wulakanci "kyankyasai" (roaches): "Amma idan kun yi ƙoƙarin zama a ƙasashen Turai, duk inda yake yamma da Bosphorus. Za mu kashe ku, mu kore ku kyankyasai daga ƙasashenmu."99

Christchurch gunman Brenton Tarrant drew much inspiration from the convicted war criminal Radovan Karadžić. En route to his killing spree, Tarrant played a Serbian nationalist song in which Radovan Karadzic is glorified and called on to lead Serbs. The song further glorifies Serbian fighters and calls for the killing of Turks who hard-line Serb nationalists use to refer to Bosnian Muslims. Tarrant’s manifesto ‘The Great Replacement’ describes that the motive for his attack was to create fear and calls for the killing of Muslims in Europe. It threatens Turks, referring to them with the dehumanising “roaches”: “But if you attempt to live in European lands, anywhere west of the Bosphorus. We will kill you and drive you roaches from our lands.”99

Tarrant cited Pope Urban II's First Crusade speech, in which Muslims are presented as barbarians, heathens, and despoilers of the sanctities of God. The Othering of Muslims as presented in Pope Urban II's speech struck a chord with his audience. Not only were the allegations false, but the image of a Turkish Other who belonged to a different faith, spoke a different language, and who prayed to a different God spurred the carnage of the First Crusade. The Othering of the Muslims had begun, and returns here with Tarrant's address "To Christians":

Tarrant cited Pope Urban II’s First Crusade speech in which Muslims are presented as barbarians, heathen, and despoilers of the sanctities of God. The Othering of Muslims as presented in Pope Urban II’s speech struck a chord with his audience. Not only were the allegations false, but the image of a Turkish Other who belonged to a different faith, spoke a different language and who prayed to a different God spurred the carnage of the First Crusade. The Othering of the Muslims had begun, and returns here with Tarrant’s address “To Christians”:

"Mutanen da suka cancanci daraja, mutanen da Allah Ubangijinmu ya albarkace su"—wait, the original says "God Our Lord," so I must write "Ubangijinmu" with the Hausa word for God: "Mutanen da suka cancanci daraja, mutanen da Ubangiji Allah ya albarkace su" — rendered without Allah: "Mutanen da suka cancanci daraja, mutanen da Ubangijinmu Allah"— Correct rendering, using the Hausa word for God throughout: "Mutanen da suka cancanci daraja, mutanen da Ubangiji Allah ya albarkace su, suna ta nishi suna faduwa karkashin nauyin wadannan zalunce-zalunce da kuma wulakanci mafi kunya. Zuriyar zababbu tana fama da tsananin zalunci, kuma al'ummar kafirai ta Saracens ba ta girmama budurwowin Ubangiji ko makarantun firistoci. Suna murkushe masu rauni da tsofaffi, suna kwace yara daga hannun uwayensu domin su manta, a tsakanin barbarawa, sunan God. Wannan al'umma karkatacciya tana bata gidajen baki … Haikalin Ubangiji ana mu'amala da shi kamar mai laifi, kuma ana satar kayan adon wuri mai tsarki. KA TAMBAYI KANKA, ME POPE URBAN II ZAI YI?" Tarrant ya kara gabatar da "Turai ga Turawa".

“The people worthy of glory, the people blessed by God Our Lord, moan and fall under the weight of these outrages and most shameful humiliations. The race of the elect suffers outrageous persecutions, and the impious race of the Saracens respects neither the virgins of the Lord nor the colleges of priests. They run over the weak and the elderly, they seize the children from their mothers so that they might forget, among the barbarians, the name of God. That perverse nation profanes the hospices … The temple of the Lord is treated like a criminal and the ornaments of the sanctuary are robbed. ASK YOURSELF, WHAT WOULD POPE URBAN II DO?” Tarrant further proposed a “Europe for Europeans”:

Dole ne a fitar da maharan daga ƙasar Turai, ba tare da la'akari da inda suka fito ko lokacin da suka zo ba. Romawa, Afirkawa, Indiyawa, Turkawa, Semawa ko wasu. Idan ba su cikin mutanenmu ba, amma suna zaune a ƙasashenmu, dole ne a fitar da su. Inda za a kai su ba damuwarmu ba ce, ko alhakinmu ba. Ƙasashenmu ba gidansu ba ne, za su iya komawa ƙasashensu ko kafa ƙasashen asalinsu a wani wuri. Amma ba za su mamaye ƙasarmu ba. Yadda za a fitar da su ba shi da muhimmanci: cikin lumana, da ƙarfi, cikin farin ciki, cikin tashin hankali ko ta hanyar diflomasiyya. Dole ne a fitar da su.

“The invaders must be removed from European soil, regardless from where they came or when they came. Roma, African, Indian, Turkish, Semitic or other. If they are not of our people, but live in our lands, they must be removed. Where they are removed to is not our concern, or responsibility. Our lands are not their home, they can return to their own lands or found their homelands elsewhere. But they will not occupy our soil. How they are removed is irrelevant, peacefully, forcefully, happily, violently or diplomatically. They must be removed.

Har sai an mayar da waɗannan baƙin da suka shigo ƙasashensu, to Turai ba ta da cikakken iko, kuma duk wanda ya ke, ba tare da la'akari da kabilarsa ko addininsa ba, zai iya kiran Turai ta sa.

Until these interlopers are repatriated to their people’s lands, then Europe has no true sovereignty, and anyone, no matter their ethnicity or beliefs can call Europe their own.

"CIRE MAHARA, SAKE MAMAYA TURAI"100

REMOVE THE INVADERS, RETAKE EUROPE”100

Dubois ya tambaye mu a farkon littafin Souls of Black Folk, "Yaya ake jin kasancewa matsala?"101 Tambayarsa na kalubalantar rashin tausayawa ta bangaren rai, inda wanda bai taba kasancewa "matsala" ba ba zai iya fahimtar kwatancin "matsala" da yawancin mutanen da Dubois ke nufi suke yiwa kansu ba. A ranar 17 ga Yuli, 2014, wani mutum mai shekara 43 mai suna Eric Garner ya rasu sakamakon shake shi da wani jami'in Sashen 'Yan Sandan Birnin New York ya yi, yayin da ya maimaita cewa "Ba zan iya numfashi ba" aƙalla sau goma sha daya. Garner ba ya tsaye cik a lokacin da ya daga hannayensa, yana nuna rashin laifinsa ga jami'an 'yan sandan New York da suka same shi. Yanayin da ya tsaya a ciki yana nufin yana kokarin samar da tazara tsakaninsa da jami'an. Ya ji barazana a cikin sararinsa kuma an take masa hakki. Masu fafutuka sun yi kokarin "metonymise" kisan mutumin mai shekara 43, suna amfani da alamar daga hannu a matsayin shelar rashin laifi, a matsayin hanyar sanya kansu cikin yanayin Garner, ta haka suka samar da sabon sarari a alamance. Kalmomi uku da Garner ya furta, "Ba zan iya numfashi ba", sun kasance a saman jerin fitattun maganganun 2014 bisa ga Yale Book of Quotations.102 Amma kalmar farko daga cikin kalmominsa, wato karin suna mai sauki amma mai tasiri "I" (ni), ita ce ke jan mu, ta hanyar tunanin sautuna iri-iri, zuwa ga daukar ra'ayin Eric Garner. Kamar yadda Zimmer (2014) ya bayyana, "Rera kalmomin 'Ba zan iya numfashi ba', kewaye da dubban wasu da ke yin hakan, aiki ne na tausayawa da hadin kai mai zurfi. Tausayin yana fitowa ne daga daukar matsayin Eric Garner a lokacin da ake shake masa rai. Hakika tribute ne na alama a shiga matsayinsa, a dauki karin suna 'I' da maimaita kalmomin da ya maimaita cikin rashin taimako sau goma sha daya."103 Kalmomin da ake tunawa, kamar rera wakokin shahararrun mawaka da suka rasu, ko maimaita kalmomi a ayyukan hajji ko lokacin tuna mutane, duk suna dauke da ma'anar hadin kai da tausayawa ta hanyar kwaikwayo.

W. E. Dubois questions us in the opening lines of Souls of Black Folk, ‘How does it feel to be a problem?’101 His question challenges an emotional disengagement whereby one who is not and has not been a ‘problem’ could not understand the ‘problematic’ self-description of the many whom Dubois was intending. On July 17 2014, 43-year-old Eric Garner was killed in a chokehold by a New York City Police Department officer, whilst having repeated “I can’t breathe” at least eleven times. Garner was not physically still when he held up his hands, protesting his innocence to the NY police officers who encountered him. His positioning was one of trying to create space between him and the officers. He felt threatened within his space and violated. Activists sought to ‘metonymise’ the 43-year-old’s killing, using the symbolic code of holding up of hands as a declaration of innocence, as a way of placing themselves in the frame of Garner and thus symbolically creating new space. The three words spoken by Garner, “I can’t breathe” topped the list of the most notable quotations of 2014 according to the Yale Book of Quotations.102 But it is the first of his words, it is the simple but highly evocative pronoun “I” which draws us, through a consideration of a range of imagined tones to a perspective-taking with Eric Garner. As Zimmer (2014) describes, “To intone the words “I can’t breathe,” surrounded by thousands of others doing the same, is an act of intense empathy and solidarity. The empathy comes from momentarily stepping into the persona of Eric Garner at that instant the life was being choked out of him. It is a kind of rhetorical tribute to inhabit his subject position, taking on the pronoun “I” and repeating the words he helplessly repeated eleven times.”103 Words reminisced, like the singing of popular songs of deceased artists or the chanting of words during pilgrimage rituals, or during memorials, all contain a sense of empathic solidarity through mimicry.

Hotunan wadanda aka kashe su kafin a kashe su da kuma bayan an kashe su sun nemi ƙirƙirar wani labari na hoto mai karkata ga gaskiya: tsoro da firgici sun cika gaba ɗaya da wulakanci bayan mutuwa. Mutane 6,000 ne suka halarci kisan Charles Johnston a Swainsboro, Georgia a shekara ta 1893, wani taron da ke da wasanni a matsayin abubuwan jan hankali na gefe. Irin waɗannan kashe-kashen ta hanyar lynching da zartarwa suna kama da nishaɗin wasan kwaikwayo na zamani, abubuwan da ke ba da nishaɗi mai ban sha'awa. Ana nuna waɗanda aka yi wa lynching kamar dabbobin da ake baje kolinsu a matsayin abin kallo. Frederickson (2002), Jahoda (1999) da Santa Ana (2002) sun nuna cewa rage darajar mutum wani sharadi ne da ya zama dole ga tashin hankali da al'ada ko gwamnati ke amincewa da shi, suna lura cewa rage darajar ƙungiyoyi shine a kore su daga ɗabi'a, don haka a amince da yarda a yi musu abin da ke musanta ɗan adamtakarsu.

Pre-lynching and post-lynching pictures of victims sought to create a twisted pictorial narrative – dread and fear was altogether fulfilled with humiliation in death. 6,000 people attended the execution of Charles Johnston in Swainsboro, Georgia in 1893, an event which hosted shows as side attractions. Such lynchings and executions resemble modern theatrical entertainment, events of thrilling amusement. The victims of lynching were displayed like animal attractions. Frederickson (2002), Jahoda (1999) and Santa Ana (2002) show that dehumanization is a necessary precondition for culturally and/or state-sanctioned violence, noting that the dehumanising of groups is to morally exclude them, and thus approve and make permissible to treat then in a way that denies their humanity.

Wannan ya bayyana a cikin bala'in Ota Benga. An ajiye shi a Gidan Namun Dajin Bronx da ke New York, a shekarar 1906, wani lokaci tare da wani biri (orangutan) a Gidan Birai, Ota ya zama abin kallo mafi girma ga jama'a da ke jin daɗin "kallon" abin da suke sha'awa. Taruwa-taruwar mutane suna zuwa don ganin wannan yaron pigmy. An kulle shi a bayan sanduna cikin keji domin a kalle shi, mutane kuma suna dariya, duk da cewa bai iya fahimtar cikakken abin cewa mutanen suna dariya ba tare da shi ba, sai dai a kansa.

This was seen in the tragedy of Ota Benga. Housed at the Bronx Zoo, New York, in 1906, at times with an orangutan in the Primate House, Ota became the spectacle par excellence for a population that relished in ‘seeing’ their attraction. Swarms gathered to catch a sight of the pigmy boy. He was locked behind bars in a cage to be stared at, and people would laugh, though he could not fully understand that the people were laughing not with him but at him.

Pamela Newkirk, marubuciyar Spectacle: The Astonishing Life of Ota Benga (Amistad, New York: 2015), ta bayyana a cikin wata kasida game da littafinta yadda Ota Benga ya zama sananne cikin dare guda tare da wannan take a jaridar New York Times: "Bushman Shares a Cage with Bronx Park Apes" (Bushman Yana Raba Keji da Birai na Bronx Park). An watsa ƙasusuwa a bene na gidan namun dajin don nuna cewa Ota mai cin naman mutane ne, duk da cewa aske haƙora al'ada ce ta maza a Kongo.