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The Backdrop
Kafin nazarin Al-Kawthar yana da muhimmanci a yi bayani a takaice game da ƙalubalen Alƙur'ani, yanayin harshe da aka saukar da shi a cikinsa, da tasirin littafin a fannin adabi da kuma ikonsa.
Before analysing Al-Kawthar it is important to briefly explain the challenge of the Qur’ān, the linguistic environment in which it was revealed, and the book’s literary impact and authority.
The Challenge
Ayoyi da yawa na Alƙur'ani sun ƙunshi Taḥaddī ga masu karatunsa. Kalmar Taḥaddī a harshen Larabci tana nufin "Ƙalubale". A cewar malamai da dama, waɗannan ayoyi suna nuni ga rashin iya kwaikwayon Alƙur'ani ta fuskar harshe da adabi, wanda shi ne ginshiƙin da'awar Alƙur'ani cewa asalinsa daga Allah yake. Alƙur'ani ya ce:
Several verses in the Qur’ān express a Taḥaddī to its readers. The word Taḥaddī in Arabic literally means “Challenge”. According to many scholars, these verses refer to the linguistic and literary inimitability of the Qur’ān, which lies at the heart of the Qur’ān’s claim to being of Divine origin. The Qur’ān states:
"Idan kuna cikin shakka game da abin da Muka saukar wa bawanmu, to ku kawo sura guda irinsa. Ku kira duk mataimakanku, banda Allah, idan kun kasance masu gaskiya."6.
“If you are in doubt of what We have revealed to Our messenger, then produce one chapter like it. Call upon all your helpers, besides Allah, if you are truthful.”6.
Da kuma
And.
Ko kuwa suna cewa ya ƙirƙiri saƙon? A'a, ba su yi imani ba. Bari su kawo irin wannan karatu, idan sun kasance masu gaskiya.7.
“Or do they say he fabricated the message? Nay, they have no faith. Let them produce a recital like it, if they speak the truth.”7.
Siffofin adabi da harshe na musamman na Alƙur'ani sun sa Musulmi suka yi amfani da su wajen gabatar da hujjoji da dama don tabbatar da imaninsu cewa littafin daga Allah yake.
The unique literary and linguistic features of the Qur’ān have been used by Muslims to articulate a number of arguments to substantiate their belief that the book is from the Divine.
Ra'ayin rashin misaltuwar Alkur'ani ya haifar da koyarwar tauhidi ta Musulunci da ake kira al-i'jaz al-Qur'an. Kalmar i'jaz suna ne na aikatau wanda ke nufin 'abin mamaki ko mu'ujiza', kuma ta fito daga aikatau a'jaza, wanda ke nufin: "kasa aikata wani abu, zama marar iko, rauni ko rashin ikon yin wani abu."8.
The inimitability of the Qur’ān developed into the Muslim theological doctrine of al-i‘jāz al-Qur’ān. The word i‘jāz is a verbal noun that means ‘miraculousness’ and comes from the verb a‘jaza, which means: “to fail to act, to be or become incapable of, to become powerless, impotent or unable to carry out something.”8.
Bisa ga yawancin malamai na tafsirin Alkur'ani na gargajiya, ayoyin da ke kalubalantar mutane su kawo irin surar Alkur'ani suna kira, cikin jaruntaka, ga masana harshe na kowane zamani da su kwaikwayi siffofin harshe da adabi na Alkur'ani.9 Kayan aikin da ake bukata domin cika wannan kalubale su ne ka'idojin nahawu da ke da iyaka, dabarun adabi da harshe, da harufan da harshen Larabci ya kunsa; wadannan ma'auni ne masu zaman kansu da kowa zai iya samu. Jalal al-Din al-Suyūṭī, marubuci kuma malami mai yawan rubuce-rubuce a karni na 15, ya takaita wannan batu da cewa:
According to numerous classical Qur’ānic commentators, the various verses that issue a challenge to produce a chapter like it daringly call for the linguistic experts of any era to imitate the Qur’ān’s linguistic and literary features.9 The tools needed to meet this challenge are the finite grammatical rules, literary and linguistic devices, and the letters that comprise the Arabic language; these are independent measures available to all. Jalal al-Din al-Suyūṭī, a prolific 15thcentury writer and scholar, summarises this point:
…lokacin da Annabi ya gabatar musu da ƙalubalen, su ne mafi iya fasahar magana, sai ya ƙalubalance su su kawo wani abu kamar Alƙur'ani, sai shekaru da dama suka wuce ba su iya yi ba, kamar yadda God ya ce: {To, sai su kawo wata ambato irinsa, idan sun kasance masu gaskiya} (Q.52:34). Sannan ya ƙalubalance su su kawo surori goma irinsa, inda God ya ce: {Ka ce: Ku kawo surori goma irinsa, kuma ku kira duk wanda kuka iya baicin God, idan kun kasance masu gaskiya} (Q.11:13). Sannan ya ƙalubalance su su kawo sura guda ɗaya, inda God ya ce: {Ko kuwa suna cewa ya ƙirƙiro shi ne? Ka ce: Ku kawo sura ƙirƙirarriya irinsa, kuma ku kira duk wanda kuka iya baicin God, idan kun kasance masu gaskiya} (Q.11:13). Lokacin da Larabawa suka kasa kawo sura guda irin Alƙur'ani duk da cewa su ne mafi iya fasahar magana a cikinsu, sai Annabi ﷺ ya bayyana gazawarsu da rashin ikonsu na biyan ƙalubalen a fili, ya kuma yi shelar rashin kwatankwacin Alƙur'ani. Sannan God ya ce: {Ka ce: Idan mutane da aljanu suka taru don su kawo irin Alƙur'ani, ba za su iya kawo irinsa ba—ko da sun taimaki juna} (Q.17:88).10
“…when the Prophet brought [the challenge] to them, they were the most eloquent rhetoricians so he challenged them to produce something like the Qur’ān, and many years passed and they were unable to do so as God says, Let them then produce a recitation similar to it, if indeed they are truthful (Q.52:34). Then, [the Prophet] challenged them to produce 10 chapters like it where God says, Say, bring then ten chapters like it and call upon whomever you can besides God, if you are truthful. Then, he challenged them to produce a single [chapter] where God says, Or do they say he [i.e. the Prophet] has forged it? Say, bring a forged chapter like it and call upon whomever you can besides God, if you are truthful(Q.11:13). When the [Arabs] were unable to produce a single chapter like [the Qur’ān] despite there being the most eloquent rhetoricians amongst them, [the Prophet] openly announced the failure and inability [to meet the challenge] and declared the inimitability of the Qur’ān. Then God said, Say, if all of humankind and the jinn gathered together to produce the like of the Qur’an, they could not produce it—even if they helped one another (Q.17:88).”10
Mashahuran marubuta da mawakan Larabci na karni na bakwai ba su iya samar da wani abu kamar na Alkur'ani ba. Sun kasance marasa iko, kuma ba su da ikon samar da wani abu makamancinsa. Kasancewar ba a taba kai wa matakinsa ba tun lokacin da aka fara saukar da shi, ba ya ba wa yawancin malaman da suka saba da harshen Larabci da siffofin salon Alkur'ani mamaki. Wannan matsaya za a tabbatar da ita a cikin wannan makala ta hanyar nazarin adabi da harshe na gajeriyar surar Alkur'ani.
The Arab poetic and literary masters of the 7th century failed to produce anything like that of the Qur’ān. They were powerless and incapable of producing anything like it. The fact that it has not been matched since it was first revealed, does not surprise most scholars familiar with the Arabic language and the stylistic features of the Qur’ān. This conclusion will be substantiated in this essay with the literary and linguistic analysis of the Qur’ān’s shortest chapter.
The Linguistic Environment
Fahimtar mahallin ƙalubalen yana da muhimmanci wajen godiya da rashin iyawar kwaikwayon Alƙur'ani. Alƙur'ani ya yi wannan ƙalubalen ga mafi girman masana harshen Larabci; Larabawan ƙarni na bakwai. Gaskiyar cewa sun kai kololuwar fasaha a magana an tabbatar da ita ta wurin malamai da yawa.
Understanding the context of the challenge is significant in appreciating the Qur’ān’s inimitability. The Qur’ān posed this challenge to the greatest Arabic linguists; the 7th century Arabs. The fact that they reached the peak of eloquence is affirmed by many scholars.
Dangane da abin da Al-Jumaḥī, marubucin tarihin mawaƙa na karni na tara, ya ce, "Waƙa ga Larabawa ita ce littafin tarihin duk abin da suka sani, kuma iyakar hikimarsu; da ita suke fara al'amuransu, da ita kuma suke kammala su."11 Shi kuwa malami Ibn Khaldūn na karni na goma sha huɗu ya nuna muhimmancin waƙa a rayuwar Larabawa da cewa: "Ya kamata a sani cewa Larabawa suna daraja waƙa a matsayin wani salon magana. Saboda haka, sun mayar da waƙa tamkar ajiyar tarihinsu, shaida ga abin da suke ganin daidai ne da kuskure, kuma babbar hanyar komawa ga yawancin ilimominsu da hikimominsu."12
According to 9th century biographer of the poets, Al-Jumaḥī, “Verse was to the Arabs the register of all they knew, and the utmost compass of their wisdom; with it they began their affairs, and with it they ended them.”11 14th century scholar Ibn Khaldūn highlights the importance of poetry in Arab life: “It should be known that Arabs thought highly of poetry as a form of speech. Therefore, they made poetry the archives of their history, the evidence for what they considered right and wrong, and the principal basis of reference for most of their sciences and wisdom.”12.
A cikin yanayin zamantakewar Larabawa na karni na 7, ƙwarewar harshe da ilimin waƙa sun kasance muhimmin fasali mai tasiri sosai. Masanin adabi da tarihi Ibn Rashīq ya nuna haka: “Duk lokacin da mawaƙi ya bayyana a cikin wata kabilar Larabawa, sauran kabilu za su zo su taya murna, a shirya bukukuwan liyafa, mata za su taru tare suna kaɗa garaya kamar yadda suke yi a bukukuwan aure, kuma tsofaffi da matasa maza duk za su yi farin ciki da labarin farin ciki. Larabawa ba sa taya juna murna sai a kan haihuwar ɗa da kuma lokacin da mawaƙi ya tashi a cikinsu.”13 Malamin ƙarni na 9 Ibn Qutayba ya bayyana waƙa kamar yadda Larabawa suka ganta: “Ma’adanin ilimin Larabawa, littafin hikimarsu… shaidar gaskiya a ranar jayayya, hujja ta ƙarshe a lokacin muhawara.”14
Linguistic ability and expertise were a highly influential feature of the 7th century Arab social environment. The literary critic and historian Ibn Rashīq illustrates this: “Whenever a poet emerged in an Arab tribe, other tribes would come to congratulate, feasts would be prepared, the women would join together on lutes as they do at weddings, and old and young men would all rejoice at the good news. The Arabs used to congratulate each other only on the birth of a child and when a poet rose among them.”13 9th century scholar Ibn Qutayba defined poetry as the Arabs saw it: “The mine of knowledge of the Arabs, the book of their wisdom… the truthful witness on the day of dispute, the final proof at the time of argument.”14.
Karni na 7 a Larabawa ya samar da yanayin zamantakewa da al'adu wanda ke da dukkan sharuɗɗan da suka taimaka wajen samun ƙwarewar harshen Larabci wadda ba a taɓa samun irinta ba. Navid Kermani, marubuci kuma ƙwararre a fannin nazarin Musulunci, ya bayyana irin yawan karatun da Larabawa suka yi don ƙware harshen Larabci, wanda ke nuna cewa Balarabe na karni na 7 ya rayu a duniyar da ke girmama waƙa: "Tsohuwar waƙar Larabci al'amari ne mai sarƙaƙiya ƙwarai. Kalmomi, ƙaidojin nahawu na musamman da tsauraran ƙa'idoji an gado su daga tsara zuwa tsara, kuma ɗalibai masu basira kaɗai ne suka ƙware harshen gaba ɗaya. Mutum sai ya yi karatu shekaru, wani lokaci ma har shekaru da dama a ƙarƙashin wani babban mawaƙi kafin ya iya da'awar taken mawaƙi. Muhammadﷺ ya girma a cikin duniyar da kusan ta girmama furucin waƙa kamar addini."15.
7th century Arabia developed a socio-cultural environment that had all the right conditions to facilitate the unparalleled expertise of the Arabic language. Navid Kermani, a writer and expert in Islamic studies, explains the extent to which the Arabs had to study to master the Arabic language, which indicates that the 7th century Arab lived in a world that revered poetry: “Old Arabic poetry is a highly complex phenomenon. The vocabulary, grammatical idiosyncrasies and strict norms were passed down from generation to generation, and only the most gifted students fully mastered the language. A person had to study for years, sometimes even decades under a master poet before laying claim to the title of poet. Muhammadصلى الله عليه وسلمgrew up in a world which almost religiously revered poetic expression.”15.
Duk da iyawar harshensu, sun kasa tare wajen samar da wani rubutu na Larabci wanda ya yi daidai da siffofin harshe da adabi na Alkur'ani. Masanin harshe, Farfesa Hussein Abdul-Raof, ya tabbatar da cewa: "Larabawa, a lokacin, sun kai kololuwar iyawar harshe ta fuskar ilimin harshe, da balaga, da magana mai ratsa zuciya, da waka. Duk da haka, babu wanda ya taba iya kawo wata surah guda kamar ta Alkur'ani."16 17.
Their linguistic abilities notwithstanding, they collectively failed to produce an Arabic text that matched the Qur’ān’s linguistic and literary features. Linguistics expert professor Hussein Abdul-Raof asserts, “The Arabs, at the time, had reached their linguistic peak in terms of linguistic competence and sciences, rhetoric, oratory, and poetry. No one, however, has ever been able to provide a single chapter similar to that of the Qur’an.”16 17.
Muhammad Abdullah Draz, wanda malami ne kuma farfesa a fannin Nazarin Musulunci a Jami'ar Al-Azhar, ya tabbatar da yadda masana na karni na bakwai suka shagala da wannan magana har ta bar su cikin rashin iyawa: "A zamanin zinariya na fasahar harshen Larabci, lokacin da harshe ya kai matsayin tsarkaka da karfi, aka kuma bai wa mawaka da masu jawabi lakabin girma cikin girmamawa a bukukuwan shekara, Kalmar Alkur'ani ta share duk wani kwarin gwiwa ga waka ko zube, har aka sauke Waqqoqi Bakwai na Zinariya da aka rataye a kofofin Ka'aba. Dukkan kunnuwa suka mika wa wannan abin mamaki na furucin Larabci."18.
Muhammad Abdullah Draz, who was a scholar and professor of Islamic Studies at Al-Azhar University, affirms how the 7th century experts were absorbed in the discourse that left them incapacitated: “In the golden age of Arab eloquence, when language reached the apogee of purity and force, and titles of honour were bestowed with solemnity on poets and orators in annual festivals, the Qur’anic word swept away all enthusiasm for poetry or prose, and caused the Seven Golden Poems hung over the doors of the Ka’ba to be taken down. All ears lent themselves to this marvel of Arabic expression.”18.
Babbar hujja mai ƙarfi da ke goyon bayan iƙirarin cewa Larabawan ƙarni na 7 sun kasa yin koyi da Alƙur'ani tana da alaƙa da yanayin zamantakewa da siyasa na lokacin. Tsakiyar saƙon Alƙur'ani ita ce yin Allah-wadai da munanan ayyuka, marasa adalci da lalata na kabilun Makka na ƙarni na 7. Waɗannan sun haɗa da wulakanta mata, cinikayya marar adalci, shirka, bautar bayi, tara dukiya, kashe jarirai da kuma ƙyamar marayu. Shugabannin Makka suna fuskantar ƙalubale daga saƙon Alƙur'ani, kuma wannan yana iya raunana shugabancinsu da nasarar tattalin arzikinsu. Domin Musulunci ya daina yaduwa, abin da kawai ake buƙata shi ne abokan adawar Annabi Muhammadﷺ su cika ƙalubalen harshe da adabi na Alƙur'ani. Irin wannan martani na harshe zai bayyana Annabi Muhammadﷺ a fili a matsayin mai yaudara da zamba. Alƙur'ani zai iya a sauƙaƙe a karyata shi a bainar jama'a. Da irin wannan wulakanci, Annabi Muhammadﷺ zai rasa magoya baya a ko'ina cikin Larabawa. Sai dai kuma, gaskiyar cewa Musulunci ya yi nasara a farkon kwanakinsa masu rauni a Makka yana tabbatar da cewa masu sauraronsa na farko ba su iya cika ƙalubalen Alƙur'ani ba. Gaskiyar cewa shugabannin Makka sun yi amfani da matakai masu tsanani, kamar yaƙi da azabtarwa, domin ƙoƙarin kashe Musulunci, yana nuna cewa hanyar da ta fi sauƙi ta karyata Musulunci—wato cika ƙalubalen Alƙur'ani—ta gaza.
A powerful argument that supports the assertion that the 7th century Arabs failed to imitate the Qur’ān relates to the socio-political circumstances of the time. Central to the Qur’ānic message was the condemnation of the immoral, unjust and evil practices of the 7th century Meccan tribes. These included the mistreatment of women, unjust trade, polytheism, slavery, hoarding of wealth, infanticide and the shunning of orphans. The Meccan leadership was being challenged by the Qur’ānic message, and this had the potential to undermine their leadership and economic success. In order for Islam to stop spreading, all that was needed was for the Prophet’sصلى الله عليه وسلمadversaries to meet the linguistic and literary challenge of the Qur’ān. Such a linguistic response to the challenge would effectively expose Prophet Muhammadصلى الله عليه وسلمas a charlatan and fraud. The Qur’ān would easily be debunked publicly. With such humiliation, Prophet Muhammadصلى الله عليه وسلمwould have lost supporters across Arabia. However, the fact that Islam succeeded in its early, fragile days in Mecca testifies to the fact that its primary audience was not able to meet the Qur’ānic challenge. The fact that the Meccan leadership had to resort to extreme campaigns, such as warfare and torture, to attempt to extinguish Islam demonstrates that the easy method of refuting Islam—meeting the Qur’ānic challenge—failed.
Linguistic and Literary Authority and Impact
Yana da muhimmanci a lura cewa malamai, duka waɗanda ba Musulmi ba da waɗanda Musulmi ne, ba sa jayayya cewa Alƙur'ani shi ne hujja a adabin Larabci kuma yana da tasiri mara misaltuwa. Misali, Wadad Kadi da Mustansir Mir sun bayyana cewa:
It is important to note that non-Muslim and Muslim scholars do not contend that the Qur’ān is an authority in Arabic literature and has had an unparalleled influence. For instance, Wadad Kadi and Mustansir Mir state:
"Duk da cewa harshen Larabci, a matsayinsa na harshe da al'adar adabi, ya kai matsayi mai kyau a lokacin aikin annabci na Muhammad ﷺ, sai bayan bayyanar Musulunci, tare da littafinsa na tushe a cikin Larabci, harshen ya kai iyakar karfin bayyana ra'ayi, adabin kuma ya kai matsayinsa mafi girma na sarkakiya da kwarewa. Lallai, watakila babu wata gaulewa a ce Alkur'ani ya kasance daya daga cikin manyan karfin da suka taimaka wajen gina adabin Larabci na zamanin gargajiya da na bayan zamani."19.
“Although Arabic, as a language and a literary tradition, was quite well developed by the time of Muhammad’s prophetic activity, it was only after the emergence of Islam, with its founding scripture in Arabic, that the language reached its utmost capacity of expression, and the literature its highest point of complexity and sophistication. Indeed, it probably is no exaggeration to say that the Qur’an was one of the most conspicuous forces in the making of classical and post-classical Arabic literature.”19.
Alƙur'ani, da yadda aka yi amfani da harshen Larabci cikin salo na musamman kuma wanda babu kamarsa, shi ne ya haifar da farfaɗowar hankali mai girma ga Larabawan hamada, kuma bayan shekara goma sha uku da saukar wahayin farko, ya zama tushe kuma babbar majiya ga wata sabuwar wayewa. Wannan magana mara misaltuwa, watau Alƙur'ani, ta zama tushe na musamman na ra'ayin siyasa, falsafa, da ruhaniya na wannan sabuwar wayewa. David Margoliouth, wanda malami ne na harshen Larabci a Jami'ar Oxford, ya bayyana irin wannan tasiri na Alƙur'ani:
The Qur’ān’s unique and unparalleled use of the Arabic language was the cause of the dramatic intellectual revival of desert Arabs, and after thirteen years of the first revelation, it became the foundational reference for a new civilisation. This inimitable speech, the Qur’ān, became the unique source of the new civilisation’s political, philosophical, and spiritual outlook. David Margoliouth, who was a Professor of Arabic at University of Oxford, explains this impact of the Qur’ān:
"Alkur'ani [sic] babu shakka yana da matsayi mai muhimmanci a cikin manyan littattafan addini na duniya. Duk da cewa shi ne mafi ƙarancin shekaru daga cikin ayyukan adabi masu canza zamani na wannan nau'i, ba ya gaza da yawa daga cikinsu wajen tasirin ban mamaki da ya yi a kan manyan al'ummomin mutane. Ya haifar da wani sabon mataki na tunanin ɗan adam da kuma sabon irin hali. Da farko ya canza ƙabilun hamada daban-daban na tsibirin Larabawa zuwa al'umma ta jarumai, sannan ya ci gaba da kafa manyan ƙungiyoyin siyasa da addini na duniyar Musulunci, waɗanda ɗaya ne daga cikin manyan ƙarfin da Turai da Gabas za su yi lissafi da su a yau.”20."
“The Koran [sic] admittedly occupies an important position among the great religious books of the world. Though the youngest of the epoch-making works belonging to this class of literature, it yields to hardly any in the wonderful effect which it has produced on large masses of men. It has created an all but new phase of human thought and a fresh type of character. It first transformed a number of heterogeneous desert tribes of the Arabian peninsula into a nation of heroes, and then proceeded to create the vast politico-religious organizations of the Muhammadan world which are one of the great forces with which Europe and the East have to reckon today.”20.
Masanin tarihi sanannen nan Karen Armstrong, ta yi jayayya cewa keɓantaccen salon adabin Alƙur'ani, tare da sabon tsarin adabinsa, ne ya tabbatar da nasarar Musulunci.
Karen Armstrong, a popular historian, argues that the literary uniqueness of the Qur’ān, with its new literary form, ensured Islam’s success:
"Kamar dai Muhammad ﷺ ya ƙirƙiri wani sabon nau'in adabi gaba ɗaya… Ba tare da wannan ƙwarewar Alƙur'ani ba, da wuya ne Musulunci zai samu tushe."21
“It is as though Muhammad had created an entirely new literary form…Without this experience of the Koran, it is extremely unlikely that Islam would have taken root.”21