Mtazamo wa Wazungu wa Kiarabu, Waislamu na Waturuki kama Wengine weusi na wa kishetani ulitokana na mapigano ya kijeshi ya Waothmani katika Balkan, na ulicheza nafasi kubwa sana katika kuunda Mwengine, pamoja na kujenga taswira ya nafsi yao wenyewe: "Mitazamo hii inapita katika historia nzima ya kanisa, katika dhana zinazoibuka za mamlaka, na katika utamaduni na taswira ya Ulaya ya nafsi yake, na kwa kiasi fulani ilirithishwa kwa Wamarekani."91

European perception of Arab, Muslims and Turks as dark and devilish Others emanated from Ottoman military engagements in the Balkans and played a most significant role in creating the Other, as well as in self-image making: “These attitudes thread through much of church history, emerging notions of sovereignty, and European culture and self-image, and to some degree were handed on to Americans.”91

Uchafuzi wa taswira ya watu fulani huambatana na msururu wa propaganda. Kumbukumbu za mahujaji Wakristo waliokwenda Yerusalemu zinaonyesha kwamba kabla ya karne ya kumi na mbili, simulizi kubwa ya Waislamu kama maadui, kama 'waharibu wa Yerusalemu' na kama 'makafiri', haikuwepo. Jukwaa lilikuwa bado halijaandaliwa. Hali ya kisiasa iliyohusisha Waseljuki kuingia Constantinople kwa uvamizi, na Wabyzantine kumwomba Papa Urban II wa Ufaransa msaada, ilianzisha mchakato wa kuwazia au kuwaza upya Waislamu kama maadui wa Mungu ambao walipaswa kupigwa vita. Kumbukumbu nne zilizosalia za hotuba ya Urban kila moja inawasilisha toleo tofauti kabisa la yaliyomo katika hotuba yake, lakini ongezeko la maneno ya chuki dhidi ya Waislamu ni dhahiri. Alionyesha mji wa Yerusalemu ukiwa chini ya tishio la taifa 'ovu' linalojihusisha na matendo 'ya kuchukiza'. Wenezi wa vita vya msalaba, kuanzia hotuba ya Papa Urban II huko Clermont mwaka 1095 hadi vita vya msalaba vilivyofuata katika miongo iliyofuata, walizalisha picha ya Muislamu kama mharibifu asiyemcha Mungu wa vitakatifu vya Kikristo, kama mtesaji wa kikatili wa Wakristo, kama mwabudu sanamu. Ubaguzi wa Waislamu kama 'wengine' ulikuwa umeanza na ulizidi kujitokeza pale Waislamu walipowekwa nje ya mipaka ya jamii iliyostaarabika kwa kawaida, kama wanyama, jambo linalodhihirishwa katika "ambao hukata matumbo ya wale wanaowachagua kuwatesa...", kinachotokana na kumbukumbu ifuatayo ya hotuba ya Urban:

The vilification of a people carries with it a train of propaganda. The accounts of Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem reveal that before the twelfth century, a grand narrative of Muslims as enemies, as ‘despoilers of Jerusalem’ and as ‘heathens’, did not exist. The stage had not yet been set. The political circumstances involving the Seljuqs’ encroaching into Constantinople and Byzantine requesting assistance from Pope Urban II in France, set in motion a mental imagining or re-imagining of Muslims as the enemies of God who had to be fought. The four surviving accounts of Urban’s speech each present a distinctly different version of what his speech entailed, but the build-up of anti-Muslim rhetoric is unmistakable. He presented a city of Jerusalem under threat of a ‘wicked’ race who partake in ‘abominable’ practices. Crusade propagandists from Pope Urban II’s speech in Clermont in 1095 to further crusades in subsequent decades produced the image of the Muslim as a godless defiler of Christian sanctities, as a barbaric torturer of Christians, as an idol worshipper. The Othering of the Muslims had begun and became more pronounced when Muslims were outside the bounds of normative civilised society, as animals, which is illustrated in “who cut open the navels of those whom they choose to torment...”, taken from the following account of Urban’s speech:

"Taarifa nzito imefika kutoka nchi zilizo karibu na Yerusalemu ... kwamba taifa lisilo kabisa la Mungu limevamia nchi ya Wakristo ... Wameharibu makanisa ya Mungu hadi chini, au kuyafanya watumwa wa desturi zao wenyewe. Wanakata matumbo ya kitovu cha wale wanaowachagua kuwatesa ... wakiwa wamelala chini huku matumbo yao yametoka nje ... Nisemeje kuhusu unyanyasaji wa kutisha wa wanawake? Ni nani mwenye wajibu wa kulipiza hili, ikiwa si ninyi? ... Chukueni njia ya Kaburi Takatifu, mkomboe nchi hiyo na mtawale wenyewe, kwa sababu nchi hiyo, kama Maandiko yasemavyo, inatiririka maziwa na asali ... Chukueni njia hii kwa msamaha wa dhambi zenu, mkiwa na uhakika wa utukufu usiofifia wa ufalme wa mbinguni.' Papa Urban alipokwisha kusema mambo haya ... kila mtu alipiga kelele kwa pamoja: Deus vult! Deus vult!, 'Mungu anataka hivyo! Mungu anataka hivyo!'"92

“A grave report has come from the lands around Jerusalem ...that a race absolutely alien to God...has invaded the land of the Christians...They have either razed the churches of God to the ground or enslaved them to their own rites...They cut open the navels of those whom they choose to torment...them as they lie on the ground with all their entrails out.... What can I say of the appalling violation of women? On whom does the task lie of avenging this, if not on you?...Take the road to the Holy Sepulchre, rescue that land and rule over it yourselves, for that land, as scripture says, floweth with milk and honey...Take this road for the remission of your sins, assured of the unfading glory of the kingdom of heaven.’ When Pope Urban had said these things...everyone shouted in unison: Deus vult! Deus vult!, ‘God wills it! God wills it!’”92

Kwa hiyo, propaganda ilicheza sehemu muhimu katika maandalizi ya Vita vya Msalaba. Hotuba ya Papa Urban II ilitumia taswira zenye uchochezi mkubwa ili kuchochea hasira ya kimaadili, na kilichojitokeza zaidi katika hotuba yake ni kuwatenga Waislamu kama "wengine", na alikihusisha hicho na wazo la kuharibu maeneo matakatifu ya Kikristo. Ni kile alichohubiri kuhusu ukatili dhidi ya Wakristo wenzao ndicho kilichowafahamisha wasikilizaji wake Waislamu walikuwa ni akina nani. Ingawa hapakuwa na mateso ya kimfumo ya Wakristo yaliyofanywa na Waislamu wa Ardhi Takatifu, hotuba ya Papa Urban II ilitosha kuzalisha mwitikio mkubwa na wa kihisia kwa wito huo.

Propaganda therefore played an essential part in the build-up to the crusades. Pope Urban II’s speech used highly inflammatory imagery to provoke moral outrage and what was most prominent in his address was the Otherising of Muslims and he connected that to the idea of despoiling of Christian sites. It was what he preached of the barbarity towards other Christians that came to inform his audience about who the Muslims were. Though there had been no systematic persecution of Christians by the Muslims of the Holy Land, Pope Urban II’s speech did enough to generate a mass passionate response to the appeal.

Ukatili uliofanywa baadaye katika kuzingirwa kwa Antiokia na kutekwa kwa Yerusalemu ulitokana na mchanganyiko wa mambo kadhaa, ikiwa ni pamoja na safari ya miaka mitatu, bidii ya kidini na ubaguzi usio na maelewano dhidi ya Waislamu. Mashujaa wa Msalaba walifanya ukatili usioelezeka na walitaka kuitakasa Mji Mtakatifu kutoka kwa makafiri – Waislamu na Mayahudi.

The savagery later unleashed in the siege of Antioch and the capture of Jerusalem was a combination of factors including the three-year march, religious fervour and an uncompromising Othering levelled against the Muslims. The Crusaders unleashed an unspeakable savagery and sought to purge the Holy City of unbelievers – Muslims and Jews.

Wakazi wa mji huo walikatwa vichwa, walichomwa kwa mishale, walitupwa kutoka juu ya minara, waliteswa na kuchomwa moto hadi kufa. Makundi ambayo yalikuwa yamejisalimisha pia yliuawa, na wanawake na watoto hawakusamehewa. Wapiganaji wa Msalaba "waliwanyakua watoto wachanga kwa nyayo za miguu yao kutoka kwenye mapaja ya mama zao au kutoka kwenye vitanda vyao vya kulalia na kuwagonga kwenye kuta au kuvunja shingo zao". Ukatili huo mkubwa wa uharibifu ulitokana, kwa sehemu, na hadithi mbaya sana, ingawa si za kweli, zilizosimuliwa kuhusu Waislamu katika Ardhi Takatifu. Shahidi mmoja wa tukio alisema, "Hakuna aliyewahi kuona au kusikia mauaji ya namna hiyo ya washirikina, kwani walichomwa kwenye mirundo ya moto kama piramidi." Mchakato wa kuwanyima utu unaeleza kwa kiasi kikubwa ukatili wa kikatili uliofanywa dhidi ya raia Waislamu wasio na silaha. Wapiganaji wa Msalaba hawakuwa wamewahi kukutana na Waislamu kabla ya mwito wa Papa Urban II, na ukosefu wa mawasiliano ya kibinadamu ungezuia, katika hali yoyote, kuweza kuiweka nafsi katika nafasi ya mwingine. Waislamu walionekana katika propaganda za Msalaba kama kila dhana potofu ya adui aliyetengwa kama "mwingine".

The inhabitants of the city were beheaded, pierced by arrows, plunged from towers, tortured and burned to death. Groups who had surrendered were also put to death, and women and children were not spared. The Crusaders “seized infants by the soles of their feet from their mothers’ laps or their cradles and dashed them against walls or broke their necks”. The brutal orgy of destruction was a result, in part, of the very negative though untrue stories told about Muslims in the Holy Land. One eyewitness said, “No one has ever seen or heard of such a slaughter of the pagans, for they were burned on pyres like pyramids.”93 The process of dehumanisation goes a long way in explaining the savage cruelty unleashed onto unarmed Muslim civilians. The Crusaders had not been exposed to Muslims prior to the appeal of Pope Urban II and the void of human interactions would in any situation disallow effective perspective taking. Muslims emerged in Crusade propaganda as every stereotype of an Othered enemy.

Katika Mahakama ya Kuhukumu Wazushi ya Uhispania wakati wa karne ya kumi na sita, Waislamu walionyeshwa kama 'Saracens', 'Hagarenes' na 'Hagarene beasts'. Katika Dola ya Habsburg ya karne ya kumi na sita, Waturuki Waislamu walionyeshwa kama "Waturuki wa kutisha" na kama adui asiye binadamu. Wahispania walieleza Wamoor kuwa wenye tamaa na wakatili. Katika nyaraka rasmi, Wamoriscos walitajwa mara kwa mara kama "tauni", "janga", "homa", "kundi la kuambukiza" au "wanyama" na "nyoka" ndani ya "kifua cha Uhispania". Hii ndiyo lugha iliyotumika katika maandishi ya kibishani, katika maandishi yaliyoandikwa kuunga mkono kufukuzwa kwa Waislamu. Mmoja wao, mhubiri wa zamani wa Valencia, Fonseca, aliandika jinsi "uhaini na tabia mbaya" za Wamoriscos zilivyorithiwa kupitia "damu yao iliyoharibika na maziwa ya mama yao".94

In the Spanish Inquisition during the sixteenth century, Muslims were depicted as ‘Saracens’, ‘Hagarenes’ and ‘Hagarene beasts’. In the sixteenth-century Hapsburg Empire, Muslim Turks were portrayed as “terrible Turk” and as a subhuman enemy. Spaniards described the Moors as greedy and sadistic. In official documents, the Moriscos were routinely referred to as a “pestilence,” a “plague,” a “fever,” a “pestilential horde,” or “beasts” or “vipers” within the “bosom of Spain.” This was the kind of language used in polemic texts, in texts written in support of the expulsion of Muslims. One of them, a former preacher in Valencia, Fonseca wrote how the “treason and bad customs” of the Moriscos were inherited in their “corrupted blood and their mother’s milk.”94

Dhana ya "Othering" na utu-kupunguzwa (dehumanisation) ni kitovu cha kuelewa itikadi iliyo nyuma ya mauaji ya kimbari ya Waislamu huko Bosnia (1992-95). Dhana hii ina umuhimu mkubwa katika kuelewa mawazo ya mshambuliaji wa msikiti wa New Zealand, Brenton Tarrant, aliyetekeleza shambulio la kigaidi la Christchurch lililoua watu 50 Waislamu waliokuwa wakisali katika Msikiti wa Al Noor na Kituo cha Kiislamu cha Linwood mwaka 2019. Kulikuwa na hisia iliyokita mizizi ya kuwatenga Waislamu (othering) katika ilani ya Tarrant. Kuna mengi yanayounganisha mpangaji wa mauaji ya kimbari ya Bosnia, Radovan Karadžić, na Tarrant. Radovan Karadžić alijulikana sana kwa kuwaelezea Waislamu wa Bosnia kama uchafu, wasaliti na wadudu waliopaswa kuangamizwa. Kwa maneno ya Biljana Plavsić, naibu wa Karadžić, "ilikuwa ni nyenzo ya [Kiserbia] iliyoharibika kijenetiki iliyokubali Uislamu."95

The concept of Othering and dehumanisation is central to understanding the ideology behind the genocide of Muslims in Bosnia (1992-95). This concept is critical in understanding the mindset of the New Zealand mosque gunman Brenton Tarrant, who carried out the Christchurch terror attack which claimed the lives of 50 Muslims praying at the Al Noor Mosque and the Linwood Islamic Centre in 2019. There existed an entrenched sense of othering of Muslims in Tarrant’s manifesto. There is much that connects the mastermind of the Bosnian genocide, Radovan Karadžić and Tarrant. Radovan Karadžić was infamous in describing Bosnian Muslims as filth, as traitors and vermin that needed to be annihilated. In the words of Biljana Plavsić, Karadžić’s deputy, “It was [Serb] genetically deformed material that embraced Islam.”95

Mfanano wa kudhalilishwa kwa Wayahudi katika Maangamizi ya Holocaust ni wa kutisha sana. Waislamu walinyang'anywa kila thamani ya kibinadamu na kufanywa wageni, duni na wa kuchukiza. Mtazamo huu kwa majirani zao Waislamu ulibadilika polepole. Salamu zozote za kirafiki za ujirani sasa zilitiliwa shaka; Mwislamu aliyekuwa kiini cha picha alipitia mabadiliko makubwa akilini mwa wahalifu Waserbia wa Bosnia. Mchakato wa kudhalilisha utu ulitekelezwa kupitia juhudi zilizopangwa za kuwafanya Waislamu wa Bosnia kuwa "wengine" na tabaka za kisiasa, kidini na kiakili za wasomi wa Waserbia, kisha ukakubalika kuwa jambo la kawaida katika vyombo vya habari. Propaganda za kugawanya watu zikawa mtindo wa siku kwa vyombo vya habari vya Waserbia na Waserbia wa Bosnia, ili kuwafanya waathiriwa wao kuwa "wengine".

The parallels with the dehumanising of Jews in the Holocaust are all too similar. Muslims were stripped of all human value and rendered alien, inferior and hideous. This attitude towards their Muslim neighbours slowly transformed. Any innocent neighbourly pleasantries were now suspect, the Muslim in the frame underwent a metamorphosis in the mind of Bosnian Serb perpetrators. The process of dehumanisation was implemented through a concerted effort of Othering the Bosnian Muslims by political, religious and intellectual strands of the Serb elite, and then normalised in the media. Polarising propaganda became the flavour of the day for Serbian and Bosnian Serb media to Otherise their victims.

Katika kisa kimoja cha kutisha kinachoonyesha kiwango ambacho "Kuwatenga" kama mchakato wa kuhalalisha vurugu kilifikia, ni kuzingirwa kwa Sarajevo. Kituo cha televisheni cha serikali cha Belgrade kilirusha habari ya uongo iliyokusudiwa kuchochea chuki na kuhalalisha kuzingirwa, ikiwemo sentensi hii: "Wanamgambo wa Kiislamu wamebuni njia ya kutisha zaidi duniani ya kuwatesa watu. Usiku wa jana waliwalisha watoto wa Kiserbia simba katika bustani ya wanyama ya 'Pionirska Dolina' ya mjini."96

In one horrifying case which reflects the extent of Othering as a process to legitimise violence is the siege of Sarajevo. The state-run Belgrade TV aired a false story intended to fuel hatred and justify the siege, including the line: “Muslim extremists have come up with the most horrifying way in the world of torturing people. Last night they fed the Serb children to the lions in the city’s ‘Pionirska Dolina’ zoo.”96

Habari hii iliripotiwa kwenye habari za jioni na ilitazamwa na mamilioni kadhaa ya watazamaji. Watekelezaji waliaminishwa kwamba kuangamizwa kwa watu wa Kiislamu kulikuwa kazi ya lazima iliyodaiwa na Serikali, na kwamba uhuru na usalama wao wenyewe ulikuwa hatarini kwa sababu ya uwepo wa "wavamizi" Waislamu. Mchakato wa kuwatenga (Othering) ulikamilika.

This was reported on the evening news and was watched by several million viewers. The perpetrators were led to think that the annihilation of the Muslim people was necessary work demanded of the State and that their own freedom and security was compromised by the presence of Muslim “invaders”. The process of Othering was complete.

Katika mazungumzo yaliyosikilizwa kwa siri na mshirika wake wa karibu mnamo Oktoba 1991, Karadžić alieleza wazi:

In an intercepted conversation with a close associate from October 1991, Karadžić made clear:

"Waislamu watatoweka, watu hao watatoweka kutoka uso wa dunia ikiwa wataanza sasa. Pendekezo letu lilikuwa nafasi yao pekee. Watakuwa wamezama damuni hadi shingoni, na watu wa Kiislamu [katika BiH] wangetoweka. Baada ya siku chache tu, Sarajevo itakuwa imetoweka na kutakuwa na vifo laki tano, na ndani ya mwezi mmoja Waislamu watakuwa wameangamizwa katika BiH."97

“Muslims will disappear, that people will disappear from the face of the earth if they start now. Our offer was their only chance. They will be up to their necks in blood and the Muslim people [in BiH] would disappear. In just a couple of days, Sarajevo will be gone and there will be five hundred thousand dead, in one month Muslims will be annihilated in BiH.”97

Karadžić alipinga itikadi ya "udugu na umoja" na kuchanganyika kwa jamii, badala yake aliruhusu simulizi ya kujiona kama waathirika kuunda mwitikio wa Waserbia.

Karadžić spoke against an ideology of “brotherhood and unity” and the mixing of communities, and instead allowed a discourse of victimhood to frame the Serbian response.

Alichagua mifano ya mateso ya Waserbia mikononi mwa Waothmani na kusuka simulizi la kuwatia kiwewe watu wake mwenyewe. Alicheza na kuamsha hofu ya Waislamu, hofu ya Mwingine, iliyowaunganisha watekelezaji Waserbia wa Bosnia katika mauaji yao ya halaiki. Katika ombi la hatia la Biljana Plavsić mbele ya ICTY, alieleza:

He picked out examples of Serb suffering at the hands of the Ottomans and wove a narrative of traumatisation of his own people. He played on generating a fear of the Muslims, a fear of the Other, which connected the Bosnia Serb perpetrators in their genocide. In Biljana Plavsić’s guilty plea before the ICTY, she explained:

"Wakati huo, nilijishawishi kwa urahisi kwamba hili lilikuwa suala la kuishi na kujilinda. Kwa kweli, lilikuwa zaidi ya hilo. Uongozi wetu, ambao mimi nilikuwa sehemu yake muhimu, uliongoza juhudi zilizowaathiri watu wengi wasio na hatia. Maelezo ya kujilinda na kuishi hayatoi haki yoyote. Mwishowe, ilisemwa, hata miongoni mwa watu wetu wenyewe, kwamba katika vita hivi tulikuwa tumepoteza utu wetu wema. Maswali yaliyo wazi yanakuwa: ikiwa ukweli huu sasa uko wazi, kwa nini sikuuona mapema? Na ni vipi viongozi wetu na wale waliofuata wangeweza kutenda vitendo kama hivyo? Jibu la maswali yote mawili, nadhani, ni hofu, hofu kipofu iliyosababisha kuwa na wazo la kupita kiasi, hasa kwa sisi ambao Vita vya Pili vya Dunia vilikuwa kumbukumbu hai, kwamba Waserbia hawangeruhusu tena kujifanya wahanga. Katika hili, sisi katika uongozi tulivunja wajibu wa msingi kabisa wa kila binadamu, wajibu wa kujizuia na kuheshimu utu wa wengine. Tulikuwa tumejitolea kufanya chochote kilichohitajika ili kushinda."98

“At the time, I easily convinced myself that this was a matter of survival and self-defence. In fact, it was more. Our leadership, of which I was a necessary part, led an effort which victimised countless innocent people. Explanations of self-defence and survival offer no justification. By the end, it was said, even among our own people, that in this war we had lost our nobility of character. The obvious questions become: if this truth is now self-evident, why did I not see it earlier? And how could our leaders and those who followed have committed such acts? The answer to both questions is, I believe, fear, a blinding fear that led to an obsession, especially for those of us for whom the Second World War was a living memory, that Serbs would never again allow themselves to become victims. In this, we in the leadership violated the most basic duty of every human being, the duty to restrain oneself and to respect the human dignity of others. We were committed to do whatever was necessary to prevail.”98

Ili kufikia malengo ya kuwa na jimbo la Waserbia upande wa magharibi wa Drina, Waserbia wa Bosnia waliona ni lazima kujitenga na idadi ya Waislamu, na waliamini hilo lilimaanisha kuwaangamiza Waislamu hao. Jambo kama hilo lisingewezekana bila kwanza kuwadhalilisha Waislamu kiasi kwamba watekelezaji wasingeona tena kuwa wao ni binadamu, bali wadudu kama panya waliohitaji kuuawa. Karadžić anawajibika kwa kuanzisha mpango wa kudhalilisha, unaoendeshwa na serikali, ambao hadi leo unawatia moyo wanationalisti wa mrengo mkali.

To achieve the goals of a Serb state west of Drina, Bosnian Serbs deemed it necessary to separate themselves from the Muslim population and they believed this meant the extermination of those Muslims. Such an undertaking could not be possible without first dehumanising the Muslim population to such an extent that perpetrators would no longer see them as human beings, but as rodents that needed to be killed. Karadžić is responsible for putting in place a state-run program of dehumanisation that serves as inspiration for far-right nationalists today.

Gaidi wa Christchurch Brenton Tarrant alipata msukumo mkubwa kutoka kwa Radovan Karadžić, mhalifu wa kivita aliyehukumiwa. Njiani kuelekea mauaji yake, Tarrant alicheza wimbo wa mzalendo wa Kiserbia ambao Radovan Karadzic anatukuzwa na kuitwa aongoze Waserbia. Wimbo huo pia unawatukuza wapiganaji wa Kiserbia na kutoa wito wa kuuawa kwa Waturuki, neno ambalo wazalendo wa Kiserbia wenye msimamo mkali hutumia kuwarejelea Waislamu wa Bosnia. Ilani ya Tarrant ya 'The Great Replacement' inaeleza kuwa lengo la shambulio lake lilikuwa kueneza hofu, na inatoa wito wa kuuawa kwa Waislamu barani Ulaya. Inawatishia Waturuki, ikiwarejelea kwa neno la kuwadhalilisha "roaches": "Lakini ikiwa mtajaribu kuishi katika ardhi ya Ulaya, popote magharibi mwa Bosphorus. Tutawaua na kuwafukuza kama mende kutoka ardhi yetu."99

Christchurch gunman Brenton Tarrant drew much inspiration from the convicted war criminal Radovan Karadžić. En route to his killing spree, Tarrant played a Serbian nationalist song in which Radovan Karadzic is glorified and called on to lead Serbs. The song further glorifies Serbian fighters and calls for the killing of Turks who hard-line Serb nationalists use to refer to Bosnian Muslims. Tarrant’s manifesto ‘The Great Replacement’ describes that the motive for his attack was to create fear and calls for the killing of Muslims in Europe. It threatens Turks, referring to them with the dehumanising “roaches”: “But if you attempt to live in European lands, anywhere west of the Bosphorus. We will kill you and drive you roaches from our lands.”99

Tarrant alinukuu hotuba ya Papa Urban II ya Vita vya Kwanza vya Msalaba, ambamo Waislamu wanawasilishwa kama washenzi, makafiri, na waharibifu wa matakatifu ya Mungu. Taswira ya "Mwingine" kama inavyowasilishwa katika hotuba ya Papa Urban II iligusa moyo wa hadhira yake. Madai hayo hayakuwa ya kweli tu, bali taswira ya Mturuki "Mwingine" aliyekuwa wa dini tofauti, aliyezungumza lugha tofauti na aliyemwabudu Mungu tofauti ndiyo iliyochochea umwagaji damu wa Vita vya Kwanza vya Msalaba. Ubaguzi dhidi ya Waislamu ulikuwa umeanza, na sasa unarejea hapa katika hotuba ya Tarrant "Kwa Wakristo":

Tarrant cited Pope Urban II’s First Crusade speech in which Muslims are presented as barbarians, heathen, and despoilers of the sanctities of God. The Othering of Muslims as presented in Pope Urban II’s speech struck a chord with his audience. Not only were the allegations false, but the image of a Turkish Other who belonged to a different faith, spoke a different language and who prayed to a different God spurred the carnage of the First Crusade. The Othering of the Muslims had begun, and returns here with Tarrant’s address “To Christians”:

"Watu wanaostahili utukufu, watu waliobarikiwa na Mungu Bwana wetu, wanalia na kuanguka chini ya uzito wa vitendo hivi vya kikatili na udhalilishaji mbaya zaidi wa aibu. Jamii ya wateule inateswa kwa mateso ya kikatili, na taifa lisilo la imani la Wasaracen halioneshi heshima kwa mabikira wa Bwana wala kwa vyuo vya makasisi. Wanawakanyaga wanyonge na wazee, wanawachukua watoto kutoka kwa mama zao ili wasahau, miongoni mwa washenzi, jina la Mungu. Taifa hilo potovu linatia unajisi nyumba za wageni … Hekalu la Bwana linatendewa kama mhalifu, na mapambo ya patakatifu yanaibiwa. JIULIZE, POPE URBAN II ANGEFANYA NINI?" Tarrant aliendelea kupendekeza "Ulaya kwa Wazungu".

“The people worthy of glory, the people blessed by God Our Lord, moan and fall under the weight of these outrages and most shameful humiliations. The race of the elect suffers outrageous persecutions, and the impious race of the Saracens respects neither the virgins of the Lord nor the colleges of priests. They run over the weak and the elderly, they seize the children from their mothers so that they might forget, among the barbarians, the name of God. That perverse nation profanes the hospices … The temple of the Lord is treated like a criminal and the ornaments of the sanctuary are robbed. ASK YOURSELF, WHAT WOULD POPE URBAN II DO?” Tarrant further proposed a “Europe for Europeans”:

"Wavamizi lazima waondolewe kutoka ardhi ya Ulaya, bila kujali walitoka wapi au walikuja lini. Warom, Waafrika, Wahindi, Waturuki, Waseme au wengine. Ikiwa si watu wetu, lakini wanaishi katika nchi zetu, lazima waondolewe. Wanakopelekwa si jambo letu, wala wajibu wetu. Nchi zetu si makazi yao, wanaweza kurudi katika nchi zao wenyewe au kuanzisha nchi zao mahali pengine. Lakini hawatamiliki ardhi yetu. Jinsi wanavyoondolewa haijalishi, kwa amani, kwa nguvu, kwa furaha, kwa vurugu au kwa mazungumzo ya kidiplomasia. Lazima waondolewe."

“The invaders must be removed from European soil, regardless from where they came or when they came. Roma, African, Indian, Turkish, Semitic or other. If they are not of our people, but live in our lands, they must be removed. Where they are removed to is not our concern, or responsibility. Our lands are not their home, they can return to their own lands or found their homelands elsewhere. But they will not occupy our soil. How they are removed is irrelevant, peacefully, forcefully, happily, violently or diplomatically. They must be removed.

Mpaka wavamizi hawa warejeshwe katika nchi za watu wao, Ulaya haitakuwa na mamlaka halisi, na yeyote, bila kujali kabila lake au imani yake, ataweza kuidai Ulaya kuwa yake.

Until these interlopers are repatriated to their people’s lands, then Europe has no true sovereignty, and anyone, no matter their ethnicity or beliefs can call Europe their own.

ONDOENI WAVAMIZI, REJESHENI ULAYA100

REMOVE THE INVADERS, RETAKE EUROPE”100

W. E. Dubois anatusaili katika mistari ya mwanzo ya Souls of Black Folk, ‘How does it feel to be a problem?’101 Swali lake linapinga kutojali kihisia, ambako mtu ambaye si na hajawahi kuwa ‘tatizo’ hawezi kuelewa maelezo ya ‘kitatizo’ ambayo Dubois alikusudia kwa wengi. Tarehe 17 Julai 2014, Eric Garner mwenye umri wa miaka 43 aliuawa kwa kubanwa shingo (chokehold) na afisa wa Idara ya Polisi ya Jiji la New York, huku akirudia kusema "I can't breathe" angalau mara kumi na moja. Garner hakuwa amesimama tuli alipoinua mikono yake, akipinga kutokuwa na hatia kwake mbele ya maafisa wa polisi wa New York waliokutana naye. Mkao wake ulikuwa wa kujaribu kuunda nafasi kati yake na maafisa hao. Alihisi kutishwa ndani ya nafasi yake na kukiukwa. Wanaharakati walijaribu ku-‘metonymise’ kifo cha Garner mwenye umri wa miaka 43, wakitumia msimbo wa kiishara wa kuinua mikono kama tangazo la kutokuwa na hatia, kama njia ya kujiweka ndani ya picha ya Garner na hivyo kuunda kiishara nafasi mpya. Maneno matatu aliyosema Garner, "I can't breathe", yaliongoza orodha ya nukuu zilizo maarufu zaidi za mwaka 2014 kulingana na Yale Book of Quotations.102 Lakini ni neno la kwanza kati ya maneno yake, nalo ni kiwakilishi rahisi lakini chenye nguvu kubwa ya kuamsha hisia "I", ambacho kupitia kuzingatia safu ya sauti zinazowezekana kufikirika kinatuvuta kuchukua mtazamo wa Eric Garner. Kama Zimmer (2014) anavyoeleza, "Kuimba maneno "I can't breathe," yakiwa yamezungukwa na maelfu ya wengine wanaofanya hivyo hivyo, ni tendo la huruma kubwa na mshikamano. Huruma hiyo inatokana na kuingia kwa muda katika nafsi ya Eric Garner wakati uhai wake ulipokuwa ukinyongwa. Ni aina ya heshima ya kiuhalishi kuingia katika nafasi ya mhusika huyo, kuchukua kiwakilishi "I" na kurudia maneno ambayo yeye bila msaada alirudia mara kumi na moja."103 Maneno yanayokumbukwa, kama vile kuimba nyimbo maarufu za wasanii waliofariki au kuimba maneno wakati wa ibada za hija, au wakati wa kumbukumbu, yote yana hisia ya mshikamano wa huruma kupitia kuiga.

W. E. Dubois questions us in the opening lines of Souls of Black Folk, ‘How does it feel to be a problem?’101 His question challenges an emotional disengagement whereby one who is not and has not been a ‘problem’ could not understand the ‘problematic’ self-description of the many whom Dubois was intending. On July 17 2014, 43-year-old Eric Garner was killed in a chokehold by a New York City Police Department officer, whilst having repeated “I can’t breathe” at least eleven times. Garner was not physically still when he held up his hands, protesting his innocence to the NY police officers who encountered him. His positioning was one of trying to create space between him and the officers. He felt threatened within his space and violated. Activists sought to ‘metonymise’ the 43-year-old’s killing, using the symbolic code of holding up of hands as a declaration of innocence, as a way of placing themselves in the frame of Garner and thus symbolically creating new space. The three words spoken by Garner, “I can’t breathe” topped the list of the most notable quotations of 2014 according to the Yale Book of Quotations.102 But it is the first of his words, it is the simple but highly evocative pronoun “I” which draws us, through a consideration of a range of imagined tones to a perspective-taking with Eric Garner. As Zimmer (2014) describes, “To intone the words “I can’t breathe,” surrounded by thousands of others doing the same, is an act of intense empathy and solidarity. The empathy comes from momentarily stepping into the persona of Eric Garner at that instant the life was being choked out of him. It is a kind of rhetorical tribute to inhabit his subject position, taking on the pronoun “I” and repeating the words he helplessly repeated eleven times.”103 Words reminisced, like the singing of popular songs of deceased artists or the chanting of words during pilgrimage rituals, or during memorials, all contain a sense of empathic solidarity through mimicry.

Picha zilizopigwa kabla na baada ya mauaji ya kikatili dhidi ya waathiriwa zilikusudia kuunda simulizi potofu ya kuona: hofu na woga vilikamilishwa kwa kudhalilishwa hata baada ya kifo. Watu 6,000 walihudhuria kunyongwa kwa Charles Johnston huko Swainsboro, Georgia mwaka 1893, tukio ambalo liliambatana na maonyesho mengine kama burudani ya pembeni. Mauaji na kunyongwa vya aina hii vinafanana na burudani ya kisasa ya tamthilia, matukio ya msisimko wa kufurahisha. Waathiriwa wa mauaji ya kikatili walionyeshwa kama vivutio vya wanyama. Frederickson (2002), Jahoda (1999) na Santa Ana (2002) wanaonyesha kwamba kuwanyima watu utu ni sharti la lazima kwa vurugu zinazoidhinishwa kiutamaduni na/au na serikali, wakieleza kwamba kuwanyima makundi utu ni kuwatenga kimaadili, na hivyo kuidhinisha na kuruhusu kuwatendea kwa njia inayokana utu wao.

Pre-lynching and post-lynching pictures of victims sought to create a twisted pictorial narrative – dread and fear was altogether fulfilled with humiliation in death. 6,000 people attended the execution of Charles Johnston in Swainsboro, Georgia in 1893, an event which hosted shows as side attractions. Such lynchings and executions resemble modern theatrical entertainment, events of thrilling amusement. The victims of lynching were displayed like animal attractions. Frederickson (2002), Jahoda (1999) and Santa Ana (2002) show that dehumanization is a necessary precondition for culturally and/or state-sanctioned violence, noting that the dehumanising of groups is to morally exclude them, and thus approve and make permissible to treat then in a way that denies their humanity.

Hili lilionekana katika msiba wa Ota Benga. Akiwa amewekwa katika Bustani ya Wanyama ya Bronx, New York, mwaka 1906, wakati mwingine pamoja na sokwe mtu katika Nyumba ya Nyani, Ota alikuwa kivutio kikuu kwa watu waliopenda sana "kuona" kile kilichowavutia. Makundi ya watu walikusanyika ili kumwona kijana huyo wa Kipigmi. Alifungiwa nyuma ya baa katika ngome ili atazamwe, na watu walicheka, ingawa hakuweza kuelewa kikamilifu kwamba watu hao hawakuwa wakicheka pamoja naye bali wakimcheka yeye.

This was seen in the tragedy of Ota Benga. Housed at the Bronx Zoo, New York, in 1906, at times with an orangutan in the Primate House, Ota became the spectacle par excellence for a population that relished in ‘seeing’ their attraction. Swarms gathered to catch a sight of the pigmy boy. He was locked behind bars in a cage to be stared at, and people would laugh, though he could not fully understand that the people were laughing not with him but at him.

Pamela Newkirk, mwandishi wa Spectacle: The Astonishing Life of Ota Benga (Amistad, New York: 2015), anaeleza katika makala kuhusu kitabu chake jinsi Ota Benga alivyokuwa maarufu ghafla kwa kichwa cha habari katika New York Times "Bushman Shares a Cage with Bronx Park Apes" (Bushman Ashiriki Banda na Sokwe wa Bustani ya Bronx). Sakafu ya bustani ya wanyama ilitawanywa mifupa ili kuonyesha kwamba Ota alikuwa mla watu, ingawa desturi ya kunoa meno ilikuwa ya kawaida miongoni mwa wanaume wa Kongo.