欧洲人对阿拉伯人、穆斯林和土耳其人的认知，将他们视为黑暗、邪恶的“他者”，这种认知源于奥斯曼帝国在巴尔干地区的军事行动，并且在塑造“他者”形象以及欧洲的自我形象方面发挥了极为重要的作用：“这些态度贯穿了大部分教会历史、新兴的主权观念以及欧洲的文化与自我形象，并在某种程度上传承给了美国人。”91

European perception of Arab, Muslims and Turks as dark and devilish Others emanated from Ottoman military engagements in the Balkans and played a most significant role in creating the Other, as well as in self-image making: “These attitudes thread through much of church history, emerging notions of sovereignty, and European culture and self-image, and to some degree were handed on to Americans.”91

诋毁一个民族会带来一连串的宣传。基督教朝圣者对耶路撒冷的记载表明,在十二世纪之前,并不存在将穆斯林视为敌人、“耶路撒冷的劫掠者”和“异教徒”的宏大叙事。当时的舞台尚未搭好。塞尔柱人向君士坦丁堡的推进,以及拜占庭请求法国的教宗乌尔班二世提供援助,这些政治环境引发了一种将穆斯林想象或重新想象为必须加以征讨的上帝之敌的心理图景。乌尔班演说的四份存世记载各自呈现出关于其演说内容的不同版本,但其中针对穆斯林的修辞渐次累积,清晰可见。他描绘耶路撒冷城正受到一个“邪恶”民族的威胁,这个民族从事着“可憎”的行径。从1095年乌尔班二世在克莱蒙的演说到随后几十年的历次十字军东征,十字军的宣传者塑造出这样一种穆斯林形象:亵渎基督教圣物的无神之徒、残酷折磨基督徒的野蛮施刑者、拜偶像者。对穆斯林的“他者化”由此开始,并在穆斯林被置于规范的文明社会之外、被视如禽兽时愈发突出,这一点体现在取自乌尔班演说记载的这句话中:“他们剖开他们选定加以折磨之人的肚脐……”

The vilification of a people carries with it a train of propaganda. The accounts of Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem reveal that before the twelfth century, a grand narrative of Muslims as enemies, as ‘despoilers of Jerusalem’ and as ‘heathens’, did not exist. The stage had not yet been set. The political circumstances involving the Seljuqs’ encroaching into Constantinople and Byzantine requesting assistance from Pope Urban II in France, set in motion a mental imagining or re-imagining of Muslims as the enemies of God who had to be fought. The four surviving accounts of Urban’s speech each present a distinctly different version of what his speech entailed, but the build-up of anti-Muslim rhetoric is unmistakable. He presented a city of Jerusalem under threat of a ‘wicked’ race who partake in ‘abominable’ practices. Crusade propagandists from Pope Urban II’s speech in Clermont in 1095 to further crusades in subsequent decades produced the image of the Muslim as a godless defiler of Christian sanctities, as a barbaric torturer of Christians, as an idol worshipper. The Othering of the Muslims had begun and became more pronounced when Muslims were outside the bounds of normative civilised society, as animals, which is illustrated in “who cut open the navels of those whom they choose to torment...”, taken from the following account of Urban’s speech:

“来自耶路撒冷周边地区的一份严重报告已经传来……一个与上帝格格不入的民族，侵入了基督徒的土地……他们或是把上帝的教堂夷为平地，或是强迫教徒服从他们自己的仪式……他们剖开他们选中折磨之人的肚脐，……让那些人躺在地上，肠子流了出来……对妇女的骇人暴行，我又何必多言？若不由你们来为此复仇，还有谁能承担这项任务？……踏上通往圣墓的道路，解救那片土地，由你们自己来统治它，因为正如经文所说，那片土地流淌着奶与蜜。……走上这条路，为了赎免你们的罪过，并确信天国的荣耀永不凋零。”乌尔班教皇说完这些话……众人齐声呼喊：Deus vult！Deus vult！，即“上帝意愿如此！上帝意愿如此！”92

“A grave report has come from the lands around Jerusalem ...that a race absolutely alien to God...has invaded the land of the Christians...They have either razed the churches of God to the ground or enslaved them to their own rites...They cut open the navels of those whom they choose to torment...them as they lie on the ground with all their entrails out.... What can I say of the appalling violation of women? On whom does the task lie of avenging this, if not on you?...Take the road to the Holy Sepulchre, rescue that land and rule over it yourselves, for that land, as scripture says, floweth with milk and honey...Take this road for the remission of your sins, assured of the unfading glory of the kingdom of heaven.’ When Pope Urban had said these things...everyone shouted in unison: Deus vult! Deus vult!, ‘God wills it! God wills it!’”92

因此，宣传在十字军东征的酝酿过程中起到了至关重要的作用。教皇乌尔班二世的演说运用了极具煽动性的意象，以激起道德上的愤慨。演说中最突出的，是将穆斯林塑造为“他者”，并将其与劫掠基督教圣地的说法联系起来。他所宣讲的对其他基督徒的残暴行径，正是让听众认识穆斯林的主要途径。尽管圣地的穆斯林并未对基督徒进行过系统性的迫害，乌尔班二世的演说却足以在民众中引发强烈而热切的响应。

Propaganda therefore played an essential part in the build-up to the crusades. Pope Urban II’s speech used highly inflammatory imagery to provoke moral outrage and what was most prominent in his address was the Otherising of Muslims and he connected that to the idea of despoiling of Christian sites. It was what he preached of the barbarity towards other Christians that came to inform his audience about who the Muslims were. Though there had been no systematic persecution of Christians by the Muslims of the Holy Land, Pope Urban II’s speech did enough to generate a mass passionate response to the appeal.

安条克围城和耶路撒冷攻陷之后所爆发的残暴行径，是多种因素共同作用的结果，包括长达三年的远征、狂热的宗教热情，以及针对穆斯林的、毫不妥协的“他者化”。十字军犯下了难以言喻的暴行，并企图清洗这座圣城中的异教徒——穆斯林和犹太人。

The savagery later unleashed in the siege of Antioch and the capture of Jerusalem was a combination of factors including the three-year march, religious fervour and an uncompromising Othering levelled against the Muslims. The Crusaders unleashed an unspeakable savagery and sought to purge the Holy City of unbelievers – Muslims and Jews.

城中居民遭到斩首、箭射、从高塔上被推下、遭受酷刑并被活活烧死。已经投降的群体同样被处死,妇女和儿童也未能幸免。十字军“从母亲的怀中或摇篮里抓起婴儿,抓住他们的脚踝,将其摔向墙壁或扭断他们的脖子”。这场残暴的毁灭狂欢,部分原因在于关于圣地穆斯林的那些极其负面、却并不属实的传言。一位目击者说:“从未有人见过或听说过如此屠杀异教徒的景象,他们被投入火堆焚烧,堆积如金字塔。”93 非人化的过程在很大程度上解释了施加于手无寸铁的穆斯林平民身上的野蛮残忍。十字军在教皇乌尔班二世发出号召之前从未接触过穆斯林,人际交往的空白在任何情况下都无法实现有效的换位思考。在十字军的宣传中,穆斯林被塑造成了一个被他者化的敌人所具有的一切刻板形象。

The inhabitants of the city were beheaded, pierced by arrows, plunged from towers, tortured and burned to death. Groups who had surrendered were also put to death, and women and children were not spared. The Crusaders “seized infants by the soles of their feet from their mothers’ laps or their cradles and dashed them against walls or broke their necks”. The brutal orgy of destruction was a result, in part, of the very negative though untrue stories told about Muslims in the Holy Land. One eyewitness said, “No one has ever seen or heard of such a slaughter of the pagans, for they were burned on pyres like pyramids.”93 The process of dehumanisation goes a long way in explaining the savage cruelty unleashed onto unarmed Muslim civilians. The Crusaders had not been exposed to Muslims prior to the appeal of Pope Urban II and the void of human interactions would in any situation disallow effective perspective taking. Muslims emerged in Crusade propaganda as every stereotype of an Othered enemy.

在十六世纪的西班牙宗教裁判所中,穆斯林被描绘成“萨拉森人”“哈加利人”和“哈加利野兽”。在十六世纪的哈布斯堡帝国,穆斯林土耳其人被描绘成“可怕的土耳其人”,被视为非人的敌人。西班牙人把摩尔人描述为贪婪而残忍。在官方文件中,摩里斯科人经常被称为“瘟疫”“灾疫”“热病”“瘟疫般的大群”,或是身处“西班牙怀抱之中”的“野兽”或“毒蛇”。这类语言出现在论战性文本中,也出现在支持驱逐穆斯林的著作中。其中一位是瓦伦西亚的前布道者丰塞卡,他写道,摩里斯科人的“背叛和恶习”是通过他们“败坏的血液和母亲的乳汁”遗传下来的。94

In the Spanish Inquisition during the sixteenth century, Muslims were depicted as ‘Saracens’, ‘Hagarenes’ and ‘Hagarene beasts’. In the sixteenth-century Hapsburg Empire, Muslim Turks were portrayed as “terrible Turk” and as a subhuman enemy. Spaniards described the Moors as greedy and sadistic. In official documents, the Moriscos were routinely referred to as a “pestilence,” a “plague,” a “fever,” a “pestilential horde,” or “beasts” or “vipers” within the “bosom of Spain.” This was the kind of language used in polemic texts, in texts written in support of the expulsion of Muslims. One of them, a former preacher in Valencia, Fonseca wrote how the “treason and bad customs” of the Moriscos were inherited in their “corrupted blood and their mother’s milk.”94

"Othering"和非人化的概念，是理解波斯尼亚穆斯林种族灭绝（1992至1995年）背后意识形态的核心。这一概念对于理解新西兰清真寺枪手布伦顿·塔兰特的心态同样至关重要。2019年，他在基督城发动恐怖袭击，在Al Noor清真寺和Linwood伊斯兰中心杀害了50名正在礼拜的穆斯林。塔兰特的宣言中存在根深蒂固的穆斯林"他者化"倾向。雷·拉多万·卡拉季奇（Radovan Karadžić）与塔兰特之间有许多相似之处。卡拉季奇因将波斯尼亚穆斯林描述为污秽、叛徒和害虫，并主张必须将其消灭而臭名昭著。卡拉季奇的副手比利亚纳·普拉夫希奇（Biljana Plavsić）曾说："是（塞尔维亚人）那些基因畸形的物质皈依了伊斯兰教。"95

The concept of Othering and dehumanisation is central to understanding the ideology behind the genocide of Muslims in Bosnia (1992-95). This concept is critical in understanding the mindset of the New Zealand mosque gunman Brenton Tarrant, who carried out the Christchurch terror attack which claimed the lives of 50 Muslims praying at the Al Noor Mosque and the Linwood Islamic Centre in 2019. There existed an entrenched sense of othering of Muslims in Tarrant’s manifesto. There is much that connects the mastermind of the Bosnian genocide, Radovan Karadžić and Tarrant. Radovan Karadžić was infamous in describing Bosnian Muslims as filth, as traitors and vermin that needed to be annihilated. In the words of Biljana Plavsić, Karadžić’s deputy, “It was [Serb] genetically deformed material that embraced Islam.”95

这种非人化过程与大屠杀中犹太人遭受的非人化惊人地相似。穆斯林被剥夺了全部的人类价值，被描绘成异类、低劣和丑陋。他们的邻居对待穆斯林的态度也逐渐发生了转变。此前任何出于邻里情谊的善意寒暄如今都遭到怀疑，在波斯尼亚塞族施暴者的头脑中，那个原本熟悉的穆斯林邻居经历了一场蜕变。非人化的过程是通过塞族精英阶层中政治、宗教和知识界各派系的共同努力实现的，他们将波斯尼亚穆斯林树立为“他者”，随后这种观念又在媒体中被常态化。两极化的宣传成为塞尔维亚及波斯尼亚塞族媒体的流行风气，它们不断将受害者塑造为“他者”。

The parallels with the dehumanising of Jews in the Holocaust are all too similar. Muslims were stripped of all human value and rendered alien, inferior and hideous. This attitude towards their Muslim neighbours slowly transformed. Any innocent neighbourly pleasantries were now suspect, the Muslim in the frame underwent a metamorphosis in the mind of Bosnian Serb perpetrators. The process of dehumanisation was implemented through a concerted effort of Othering the Bosnian Muslims by political, religious and intellectual strands of the Serb elite, and then normalised in the media. Polarising propaganda became the flavour of the day for Serbian and Bosnian Serb media to Otherise their victims.

在一个令人震惊的案例中，这一案例反映出“他者化”作为一种为暴力辩护的手段，其程度之深，莫过于萨拉热窝围城事件。国营的贝尔格莱德电视台播出了一则旨在煽动仇恨、为围城辩解的虚假报道，其中有这样一句话：“穆斯林极端分子想出了世界上最骇人听闻的折磨人的方式。昨晚，他们在城中‘皮奥内尔斯卡多丽娜’动物园把塞尔维亚儿童喂了狮子。”96

In one horrifying case which reflects the extent of Othering as a process to legitimise violence is the siege of Sarajevo. The state-run Belgrade TV aired a false story intended to fuel hatred and justify the siege, including the line: “Muslim extremists have come up with the most horrifying way in the world of torturing people. Last night they fed the Serb children to the lions in the city’s ‘Pionirska Dolina’ zoo.”96

这则新闻在晚间新闻中播出，收看人数达数百万。实施者被引导相信，灭绝穆斯林民族是国家要求的必要工作，而他们自身的自由和安全因穆斯林“入侵者”的存在而受到威胁。“他者化”的过程就此完成。

This was reported on the evening news and was watched by several million viewers. The perpetrators were led to think that the annihilation of the Muslim people was necessary work demanded of the State and that their own freedom and security was compromised by the presence of Muslim “invaders”. The process of Othering was complete.

在1991年10月与一位亲密助手的一段被截获的对话中，卡拉季奇表明：

In an intercepted conversation with a close associate from October 1991, Karadžić made clear:

"穆斯林将会消失，那个民族将会从地球上消失，如果他们现在开始的话。我们的提议是他们唯一的机会。他们将被血淹没到脖子，波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那的穆斯林民族将会消失。仅仅几天之内，萨拉热窝将不复存在，将有五十万人死亡；一个月之内，穆斯林将在波黑被灭绝。"97

“Muslims will disappear, that people will disappear from the face of the earth if they start now. Our offer was their only chance. They will be up to their necks in blood and the Muslim people [in BiH] would disappear. In just a couple of days, Sarajevo will be gone and there will be five hundred thousand dead, in one month Muslims will be annihilated in BiH.”97

卡拉季奇反对所谓"兄弟情谊与团结"的意识形态以及各族群的混居，转而任由一种受害者论述来塑造塞尔维亚人的应对。

Karadžić spoke against an ideology of “brotherhood and unity” and the mixing of communities, and instead allowed a discourse of victimhood to frame the Serbian response.

他挑选了塞尔维亚人在奥斯曼人手下受苦的例子，编织出一套关于他本民族遭受创伤的叙事。他煽动对穆斯林的恐惧，即对“他者”的恐惧，而这种恐惧与波斯尼亚塞族犯罪者的种族灭绝行为紧密相连。在比利亚娜·普拉夫西奇向前南斯拉夫问题国际刑事法庭认罪时，她解释道：

He picked out examples of Serb suffering at the hands of the Ottomans and wove a narrative of traumatisation of his own people. He played on generating a fear of the Muslims, a fear of the Other, which connected the Bosnia Serb perpetrators in their genocide. In Biljana Plavsić’s guilty plea before the ICTY, she explained:

“当时，我很容易说服自己，这是一场关乎生存和自卫的事情。事实上，远不止于此。我们的领导层，而我本人也是其中不可或缺的一员，发动了一场使无数无辜者蒙难的行动。自卫和生存的解释并不能为此提供任何正当理由。到最后，甚至在我们自己的人民中也有人说，在这场战争中，我们丧失了高尚的品格。于是显而易见的问题是：既然这一真相如今已不言自明，我当初为何没有看清？我们的领导人以及追随他们的人又怎会犯下这样的行径？我认为，对这两个问题的答案都是恐惧，一种令人盲目的恐惧，并由此演变为一种执念：尤其是对我们这些亲历过第二次世界大战的人而言，我们担心塞尔维亚人再也不能任人宰割、沦为受害者。在这件事上，我们领导层违背了每个人最基本的责任，即克制自己、尊重他人人格尊严的责任。我们当时决心不惜一切代价，去取得胜利。”98

“At the time, I easily convinced myself that this was a matter of survival and self-defence. In fact, it was more. Our leadership, of which I was a necessary part, led an effort which victimised countless innocent people. Explanations of self-defence and survival offer no justification. By the end, it was said, even among our own people, that in this war we had lost our nobility of character. The obvious questions become: if this truth is now self-evident, why did I not see it earlier? And how could our leaders and those who followed have committed such acts? The answer to both questions is, I believe, fear, a blinding fear that led to an obsession, especially for those of us for whom the Second World War was a living memory, that Serbs would never again allow themselves to become victims. In this, we in the leadership violated the most basic duty of every human being, the duty to restrain oneself and to respect the human dignity of others. We were committed to do whatever was necessary to prevail.”98

为了实现德里纳河以西建立塞尔维亚国家的目标，波斯尼亚塞尔维亚人认为有必要将自己与穆斯林人口分开，而他们认为这意味着要消灭这些穆斯林。若不事先将穆斯林人口非人化到如此地步，使施害者不再视其为人类，而是视为需要被消灭的啮齿动物，这样的行动便不可能实现。卡拉季奇应对推行一项由国家主导的非人化计划负责，该计划至今仍为当今极右翼民族主义者提供灵感。

To achieve the goals of a Serb state west of Drina, Bosnian Serbs deemed it necessary to separate themselves from the Muslim population and they believed this meant the extermination of those Muslims. Such an undertaking could not be possible without first dehumanising the Muslim population to such an extent that perpetrators would no longer see them as human beings, but as rodents that needed to be killed. Karadžić is responsible for putting in place a state-run program of dehumanisation that serves as inspiration for far-right nationalists today.

克赖斯特彻奇枪手布伦顿·塔兰特从被定罪的战犯拉多万·卡拉季奇身上汲取了大量灵感。在前往实施屠杀的途中,塔兰特播放了一首塞尔维亚民族主义歌曲,歌中颂扬拉多万·卡拉季奇,并呼吁他带领塞尔维亚人。这首歌还进一步颂扬塞尔维亚战士,并号召杀害土耳其人——强硬的塞尔维亚民族主义者用这一称呼指代波斯尼亚穆斯林。塔兰特的宣言《大替代》称,他发动袭击的动机是制造恐惧,并号召杀害欧洲的穆斯林。宣言还威胁土耳其人,并用非人化的字眼“蟑螂”称呼他们:“但如果你们企图生活在欧洲的土地上,在博斯普鲁斯海峡以西的任何地方,我们就会杀死你们,把你们这些蟑螂赶出我们的土地。”99

Christchurch gunman Brenton Tarrant drew much inspiration from the convicted war criminal Radovan Karadžić. En route to his killing spree, Tarrant played a Serbian nationalist song in which Radovan Karadzic is glorified and called on to lead Serbs. The song further glorifies Serbian fighters and calls for the killing of Turks who hard-line Serb nationalists use to refer to Bosnian Muslims. Tarrant’s manifesto ‘The Great Replacement’ describes that the motive for his attack was to create fear and calls for the killing of Muslims in Europe. It threatens Turks, referring to them with the dehumanising “roaches”: “But if you attempt to live in European lands, anywhere west of the Bosphorus. We will kill you and drive you roaches from our lands.”99

Tarrant引用了教皇乌尔班二世发动第一次十字军东征时的演说，其中将穆斯林描绘为野蛮人、异教徒，以及亵渎神圣之物的人。乌尔班二世演说中对穆斯林的“他者化”打动了他的听众。这些指控不仅是虚假的，那种描绘突厥“他者”的形象，即一个信仰不同、语言不同、崇拜不同之神的群体，还助长了第一次十字军东征中的大屠杀。对穆斯林的“他者化”由此开始，并在Tarrant的《致基督徒》一文中再度出现。

Tarrant cited Pope Urban II’s First Crusade speech in which Muslims are presented as barbarians, heathen, and despoilers of the sanctities of God. The Othering of Muslims as presented in Pope Urban II’s speech struck a chord with his audience. Not only were the allegations false, but the image of a Turkish Other who belonged to a different faith, spoke a different language and who prayed to a different God spurred the carnage of the First Crusade. The Othering of the Muslims had begun, and returns here with Tarrant’s address “To Christians”:

“值得荣耀的人民，蒙受我们的主上帝祝福的人民，在这些暴行和最可耻的屈辱的重压之下呻吟、倒下。被拣选的民族遭受骇人听闻的迫害，而邪恶的撒拉逊民族既不尊重主的童贞女，也不尊重司祭的学院。他们践踏弱者和老人，从母亲身边抢走孩子，好让他们在蛮族之中忘记上帝的名字。那个邪恶的民族亵渎救济院……主的圣殿被当作罪犯一样对待，圣所的装饰被抢走。自问：教宗乌尔班二世会怎么做？”塔兰特进一步提出了“欧洲人的欧洲”。

“The people worthy of glory, the people blessed by God Our Lord, moan and fall under the weight of these outrages and most shameful humiliations. The race of the elect suffers outrageous persecutions, and the impious race of the Saracens respects neither the virgins of the Lord nor the colleges of priests. They run over the weak and the elderly, they seize the children from their mothers so that they might forget, among the barbarians, the name of God. That perverse nation profanes the hospices … The temple of the Lord is treated like a criminal and the ornaments of the sanctuary are robbed. ASK YOURSELF, WHAT WOULD POPE URBAN II DO?” Tarrant further proposed a “Europe for Europeans”:

“入侵者必须被驱逐出欧洲的土地，无论他们来自何处、何时而来。吉普赛人、非洲人、印度人、土耳其人、闪米特人或其他任何族群，皆在此列。如果他们不属于我们的民族，却居住在我们的土地上，就必须被驱逐。他们被驱逐到哪里，不是我们的关切，也不是我们的责任。我们的土地不是他们的家园，他们可以回到自己的故土，或在别处建立自己的家园。但他们不得占据我们的土地。至于如何驱逐，则无关紧要：和平地、强制地、心甘情愿地、暴力地或外交地，都可以。他们必须被驱逐。”

“The invaders must be removed from European soil, regardless from where they came or when they came. Roma, African, Indian, Turkish, Semitic or other. If they are not of our people, but live in our lands, they must be removed. Where they are removed to is not our concern, or responsibility. Our lands are not their home, they can return to their own lands or found their homelands elsewhere. But they will not occupy our soil. How they are removed is irrelevant, peacefully, forcefully, happily, violently or diplomatically. They must be removed.

在这些入侵者被遣返回其民族的故土之前，欧洲就没有真正的主权，任何人，无论其种族或信仰如何，都可以宣称欧洲是他自己的。

Until these interlopers are repatriated to their people’s lands, then Europe has no true sovereignty, and anyone, no matter their ethnicity or beliefs can call Europe their own.

驱逐侵略者，夺回欧洲100

REMOVE THE INVADERS, RETAKE EUROPE”100

W. E. Dubois 在《黑人的灵魂》开篇向我们发问:“身为一个问题,是什么感觉?”101 他的提问挑战的是一种情感上的疏离:那些从未被视为“问题”、也从未经历过这种处境的人,无法理解 Dubois 所指向的众多人自我描述中的“问题性”。2014年7月17日,43岁的 Eric Garner 在纽约市警察局一名警官的锁喉动作中丧生,在此过程中他至少十一次重复说“我不能呼吸了”。当他举起双手、向遇到他的纽约警察表明自己的清白时,他并非身体静止。他的姿势是在努力与警察之间拉开空间。他在自己的空间内感到受威胁,也感到被侵犯。活动人士试图以转喻的方式来理解这位43岁男子的死亡,借用举起双手表示无辜的象征符号,将自己置于 Garner 的处境之中,从而以象征的方式开辟出新的空间。Garner 所说的三个词“我不能呼吸了”,在耶鲁《名言大全》评选的2014年最著名语录中名列前茅。102 但真正打动人的,是其中的第一个词,即那个简单却极富感染力的代词“我”。通过对一系列想象语调的考量,它引领我们进入与 Eric Garner 的换位视角。正如 Zimmer(2014)所描述的:“成千上万的人同声吟诵‘我不能呼吸了’,这是一种强烈的共情与团结的行为。这种共情来自于在 Garner 生命被扼杀的那一刻,短暂地代入他的身份。以‘我’这一代词占据他的主体位置,并重复他无助地重复了十一次的话语,是一种修辞性的致敬。”103 与流行歌曲对已故艺术家的传唱,或朝圣仪式和纪念活动中的诵念一样,这类被回忆和重复的话语,都通过模仿蕴含着一种共情的团结感。

W. E. Dubois questions us in the opening lines of Souls of Black Folk, ‘How does it feel to be a problem?’101 His question challenges an emotional disengagement whereby one who is not and has not been a ‘problem’ could not understand the ‘problematic’ self-description of the many whom Dubois was intending. On July 17 2014, 43-year-old Eric Garner was killed in a chokehold by a New York City Police Department officer, whilst having repeated “I can’t breathe” at least eleven times. Garner was not physically still when he held up his hands, protesting his innocence to the NY police officers who encountered him. His positioning was one of trying to create space between him and the officers. He felt threatened within his space and violated. Activists sought to ‘metonymise’ the 43-year-old’s killing, using the symbolic code of holding up of hands as a declaration of innocence, as a way of placing themselves in the frame of Garner and thus symbolically creating new space. The three words spoken by Garner, “I can’t breathe” topped the list of the most notable quotations of 2014 according to the Yale Book of Quotations.102 But it is the first of his words, it is the simple but highly evocative pronoun “I” which draws us, through a consideration of a range of imagined tones to a perspective-taking with Eric Garner. As Zimmer (2014) describes, “To intone the words “I can’t breathe,” surrounded by thousands of others doing the same, is an act of intense empathy and solidarity. The empathy comes from momentarily stepping into the persona of Eric Garner at that instant the life was being choked out of him. It is a kind of rhetorical tribute to inhabit his subject position, taking on the pronoun “I” and repeating the words he helplessly repeated eleven times.”103 Words reminisced, like the singing of popular songs of deceased artists or the chanting of words during pilgrimage rituals, or during memorials, all contain a sense of empathic solidarity through mimicry.

同样地,W.E.B. 杜波依斯提出了“双重意识”的概念,它压在他的自我认知之上:他既从自己的黑人身份看待自己,又透过一个白人世界的目光看待自己,并努力去符合那个世界强加给他的标准。他被一种对自身存在的否定所束缚,因为他试图在自己肤色在一个占主导地位的白人社会中所被赋予的含义与所代表的意义之外,界定自己。我们被引领着与杜波依斯一同穿行于他的心理图景之中,因为他在探寻自己与“另一个世界”之间那道鸿沟的成因。他在自己的探问中是在场的,这与法农所说的空间性宣示相似——即他自身的身体存在;但我们从一开始就得知,另一个世界与他之间的联系是迟疑的。

私刑前后的受害者照片试图营造一种扭曲的图像叙事——恐惧与惊惧最终与死后的羞辱合而为一。1893年，佐治亚州斯旺斯伯勒为查尔斯·约翰斯顿举行的处决吸引了6,000人到场，活动中还安排了各种表演作为附带的娱乐。此类私刑与处决酷似现代的戏剧娱乐，是惊险刺激的消遣活动。私刑的受害者像动物展品一样被陈列示众。Frederickson（2002）、Jahoda（1999）与Santa Ana（2002）的研究表明，非人化是文化上和/或国家认可的暴力的必要前提。他们指出，将某些群体非人化，就是在道德上将其排除在外，从而认可并许可以否认其人性的方式对待他们。

Pre-lynching and post-lynching pictures of victims sought to create a twisted pictorial narrative – dread and fear was altogether fulfilled with humiliation in death. 6,000 people attended the execution of Charles Johnston in Swainsboro, Georgia in 1893, an event which hosted shows as side attractions. Such lynchings and executions resemble modern theatrical entertainment, events of thrilling amusement. The victims of lynching were displayed like animal attractions. Frederickson (2002), Jahoda (1999) and Santa Ana (2002) show that dehumanization is a necessary precondition for culturally and/or state-sanctioned violence, noting that the dehumanising of groups is to morally exclude them, and thus approve and make permissible to treat then in a way that denies their humanity.

这一悲剧在奥塔·本加（Ota Benga）身上得到了体现。1906年，他被安置在纽约布朗克斯动物园，有时与一只猩猩一同待在灵长类馆中。奥塔成了一个极具观赏性的展品，供那些热衷于“观看”的人们围观。人群蜂拥而至，只为一睹这位俾格米男孩的模样。他被关在笼子的栏杆后面，供人凝视，人们对此哈哈大笑；而他并不能完全理解，这些人是在嘲笑他，而不是与他一同欢笑。

This was seen in the tragedy of Ota Benga. Housed at the Bronx Zoo, New York, in 1906, at times with an orangutan in the Primate House, Ota became the spectacle par excellence for a population that relished in ‘seeing’ their attraction. Swarms gathered to catch a sight of the pigmy boy. He was locked behind bars in a cage to be stared at, and people would laugh, though he could not fully understand that the people were laughing not with him but at him.

帕梅拉·纽柯克(Pamela Newkirk)是《奇观:奥塔·本加的惊人人生》(Spectacle: The Astonishing Life of Ota Benga,纽约:Amistad,2015)一书的作者。她在一篇关于该书的文章中描述了奥塔·本加如何在一夜之间成为轰动人物,当时《纽约时报》的标题为“布须曼人与布朗克斯公园的猿猴同居一笼”。动物园的地面上散落着骨头,以暗示奥塔是食人者,然而磨尖牙齿在刚果男子中本是一种习俗。

Pamela Newkirk, author of Spectacle: The Astonishing Life of Ota Benga (Amistad, New York: 2015) describes in an article about her book how Ota Benga became an overnight sensation with the following headline in the New York Times “Bushman Shares a Cage with Bronx Park Apes”. The floor in the zoo was scattered with bones to suggest Ota was a cannibal – though the practice of sharpening teeth was customary among Congolese men.

在只有一只名叫多洪的猩猩作伴的情况下,本加时而沉默地怒视,时而射箭,时而愤怒地模仿人群的嘲笑。虽然人群中或许有人对这个被关在笼子里的人感到怜悯或羞愧,但《泰晤士报》却向读者保证,他"属于科学家认为在人类等级中排名不高的一个种族"。111

With only an orangutan named Dohong as a companion, Benga alternated between glowering silently, shooting a bow and arrow, and angrily mimicking the crowd’s jeers. While some in the mob might have felt pity or shame at the sight of a caged man, the Times reassured readers that he was “one of a race that scientists do not rate high in the human scale.”111