Licha ya kuporomoka kwa jumla kulikoelezwa hapo juu, katika kipindi hiki chote kulikuwepo mara kwa mara wanazuoni wachache mashuhuri waliopinga Taqleed na kuthubutu kuinua bendera ya Ijtihaad. Walitoa wito wa kurudi kwenye misingi ya dini, kwenye vyanzo halisi vya sheria ya Kiislamu, na kutegemea misingi hiyo kuliko kitu chochote kingine.

In spite of the general decay described above, there existed from time to time throughout this period a few outstanding scholars who opposed Taqleed and dared to raise the banner of Ijtihaad. They called for a return to the roots of the religion, to the true sources of Islamic law and to reliance on these foundations above all else.

Baadhi ya wanamageuzi hawa na michango yao yameelezwa hapa chini.

Some of these reformers and their contributions are described hereafter.

Ahmad ibn Taymeeyah (1263-1328 CE) hakuwa miongoni mwa wanamatengenezo wakuu wa kipindi hiki. Kwa sababu ya kupinga hali iliyokuwepo, wengi wa wakati wake walimtangaza kuwa mtoka dini, na watawala waliagiza akafungwa jela mara kwa mara. Hata hivyo, Ibn Taymeeyah alikuwa mmoja wa wanazuoni wakubwa wa zama zake. Mwanzoni alisoma Fiqh kwa mujibu wa Madhehebu ya Hambali, lakini hakujizuia nayo peke yake. Alisoma vyanzo vya sheria za Kiislamu kwa kina na akabobea katika elimu zote za Kiislamu zilizojulikana wakati huo.

Ahmad ibn Taymeeyah (1263-1328 CE) was not foremost among the reformers of this period. Because of his challenge of the status quo, many of his contemporaries declared him an apostate and had the authorities jail him repeatedly. Ibn Taymeeyah was, however, one of the greatest scholars of his time. Initially, he had studied Fiqh according to the Hambalee Madh-hab, but did not restrict himself to it. He studied the sources of Islamic law in depth and mastered all the Islamic sciences which were known at that time.

Aidha, alichunguza maandiko ya madhehebu mbalimbali yaliyojitenga na Uislamu, akasoma vitabu vya kidini vya Wakristo, Mayahudi na madhehebu yao mbalimbali, na akaandika mapitio mapana juu ya yote hayo. Ibn Taymiyyah pia alishiriki katika Jihadi dhidi ya Wamongolia waliokuwa wameiteka mikoa ya mashariki na kaskazini ya dola ya zamani ya 'Abbasi, na walikuwa katika zama hizo... Miongoni mwa wanazuoni wakubwa wa Kiislamu wa zama zao, aliyebeba kwa kizazi kilichofuata bendera ya Ijtihaadi na kurudi kwenye vyanzo safi vya Uislamu, ambayo yeye mwenyewe alikuwa ameinua. Miongoni mwao alikuwa Ibn Qayyim, mwanazuoni mkubwa katika fani za Fiqhi na uhakiki wa Hadithi, na Ibn Kathiir, bingwa wa Tafsiri, Historia na Hadithi.

Furthermore, he examined the writings of various sects which had broken off from islaam, studied the religious books of the Christians, the Jews and their various sects and wrote extensive critiques on all of them. Ibn Taymeeyah also took part in the Jihaad against the Mongols who had occupied the eastern and northern provinces of the former ‘Abbaasid state and were at that were among the greatest Islamic scholars of their time and carried on to the next generation the banner of Ijtihaad and a return to the pure sources of Islaam which he had raised. Among them was Ibn Qayyim, a great scholar in the fields of Fiqh and Hadeeth criticism and Ibn Katheer, a master in Tafseer, History and Hadeeth.

Muhammad ibn ‘Alee ash-Shawkaanee (1757-1835 CE)

Muhammad ibn ‘Alee ash-Shawkaanee (1757-1835 CE)

alizaliwa karibu na mji wa Shawkaan nchini Yemen, pia alikuwa miongoni mwa wanamageuzi wa kipindi hiki. Ash-Shawkaanee alisoma fiqhi kwa mujibu wa madhehebu ya Zaydee192 na akawa mmoja wa wanazuoni wake mashuhuri.

born near the town of Shawkaan in Yemen, was also among the reformers to this Period. Ash-Shawkaanee studied Fiqh according to the Zaydee Madh-hab192 and became one of its outstanding scholars.

Kisha aliendelea na utafiti wa kina wa Hadithi za wakati wake. Katika hatua hii alijiweka huru na madhehebu (Madh-hab) na akaanza kufanya Ijtihaad huru. Aliandika kazi nyingi katika Fiqh na misingi yake, ambamo masuala yaliyochunguzwa kwa mtazamo wa madhehebu yote yalihitimishwa kwa ufumbuzi uliotegemea tu hoja sahihi zaidi na ushahidi wenye kushawishi zaidi. Imaam ash-Shawkaanee alichukua msimamo kwamba Taqleed ni Haraam, na aliandika vitabu kadhaa kuhusu mada hiyo, kwa mfano, Al-Qawl al-Mufeed fee Hukm at-Taqleed. Kwa sababu hiyo, pia alishambuliwa na wanazuoni wengi wa wakati wake.193

He then went into an in-depth study of the Hadeeth of his time. At this point he freed him self of the Madh-hab and began making independent Ijtihaad. He wrote a number of works in Fiqh and its fundamentals in which issues studied from the points of view of all the Madh-habs were concluded with solutions based solely on the most accurate proofs and the most convincing arguments. Imaam ash-Shawkaanee took the position that Taqleed was Haraam and wrote a number of books on the topic, for example, Al-Qawl alMufeed fee Hukm at-Taqleed. Consequently, he also came under attack from most of the scholars of his time.193

Mwanachuoni mwingine mashuhuri aliyekuwa mfufuzi wa dini alikuwa ni mwanazuoni mkubwa Ahmad ibn ‘Abdur-Raheem, anayejulikana zaidi kama Shah Walee Allaah Dihlawee (1703-1762 CE). Alizaliwa katika bara dogo la India, ambako taqleed ilikuwa labda imeenea zaidi. Baada ya kuzimudu sayansi mbalimbali za Kiislamu, alitoa wito wa kufunguliwa tena kwa mlango wa ijtihaad na kuunganishwa tena kwa madhehebu za Fiqh. Katika juhudi zake za kuchunguza upya kanuni za Kiislamu na kubaini ni kwa mamlaka gani madhehebu ya kisheria yalijengea kanuni zake, Shah Walee Allaah alihuisha utafiti wa Hadeeth. Ingawa hakufikia kiwango cha kuzikataa madhehebu zilizokuwepo za Fiqh, alifundisha kwamba kila mtu yuko huru kuchagua uamuzi fulani tofauti na ule uliochukuliwa na madhehebu ambayo yeye mwenyewe ni wa kwake, endapo ataamini kwamba jambo hilo limethibitishwa vizuri zaidi na Hadeeth.194

Another noteworthy reformer was the great schoar Ahmad ibn ‘Abdur-Raheem better known as Shah Walee Allaah Dihlawee (1703-1762 CE). He was born in the Indian sub-continent where Taqleed was, perhaps, most rampant. After he had mastered the various Islamic sciences, he called for the re-opening of the door of Ijtihaad and the re-unification of the schools of Fiqh. In this efforts to re-examine Islamic principles and to find out on what authority the legal schools based their regulations, Shah Walee Allaah rejuvenated the study of Hadeeth. Although he did not go so far as to reject the existing Fiqh schools, nevertheless he tought that everyone was free to choose a particular decision different from that taken by the school to which he belonged himself, if he was convinced that the case was better confirmed by Hadeeth.194

Hata hivyo, hali ya jumla ya kudorora na kukwama imeendelea hadi leo, licha ya juhudi za wanafikra wa kisasa kama Jamaal ad-Deen al-Afghaanee (1839-1897 CE) aliyezunguka katika ulimwengu wa Kiislamu akiita kwa ajili ya mageuzi. Jamaal ad-Deen alisafiri hadi India, Makkah, na Constantinople, hatimaye akaweka makazi yake nchini Misri. Alitaka uhuru wa fikra za kisiasa, kidini na kisayansi, na alilaani taqleed pamoja na ufisadi wa serikali. Jamaal ad-Deen alifundisha mawazo haya katika Chuo Kikuu cha Jamaal ad-Deen. Mawazo yake yalionekana kuwa ya kupindukia. Kwa mfano, alimweka akili ya binadamu na hitimisho zake za kimantiki katika kiwango sawa na Wahyi wa Mwenyezi Mungu. Nia zake pia ziliwekwa shakani kutokana na ushiriki wake katika harakati za Freemasonry, ambazo wakati huo zilikuwa zikianzisha matawi mapya Mashariki ya Kati.195

However the over all state of degeneration and stagnation has continued until today, despite the efforts of modern thinkers like Jamaal ad-Deen al-Afghaanee (1839-1897 CE) who traveled throughout the Muslim world calling for reform. Jamaal ad-Deen traveled to India, Makkah, and Constantinople, settling finally in Egypt. He called for free political, religious and scientific thought and denounced Taqleed and state corruption. Jamaal ad-Deen thought these ideas at the University of Jamaal ad-Deen’s ideas were extremist. For example, he elevated the human mind and its logical deductions to a level equal to that of Divine Revelation. His intentions also became suspect due to his involvement with the Masonic movement which was at that time establishing new branches in the Middle-East.195

Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905 CE) alikuwa miongoni mwa wanafunzi maarufu zaidi wa Afghaanee. Chini ya ushawishi wa Afghaanee na Ibn Muhammad ‘Abduh, Taqleed pamoja na wafuasi wake walishambuliwa kwa utaratibu. Lakini, kutokana na mwelekeo wa Muhammad ‘Abduh kuelekea usasa uliopitiliza, hatimaye alipotoka katika baadhi ya tafsiri zake na hukumu zake za kisheria. Kwa mfano, katika Tafsiri yake ya Qur’aan alisema kwamba matukio ya Mtume ﷺ yaliyotajwa na {...} hayakufanywa moja kwa moja na Mungu kupitia nguvu za maumbile. Kwake, makundi ya ndege waliodondosha vijiwe vya udongo juu ya jeshi la Abrahah na tembo wake wakati wa shambulio lao dhidi ya Ka’bah walikuwa ni vijidudu vya angani tu vilivyoeneza magonjwa miongoni mwao. Vivyo hivyo, alitoa Fatwaa inayoruhusu Waislamu kushiriki katika miamala ya kibiashara yenye riba. Aliegemeza hukumu hii juu ya kanuni ya Fiqh kwamba dharura kubwa huhalalisha yaliyoharamishwa. Udhaifu wa hukumu yake ulikuwa katika ukweli kwamba Fiqh inaeleza dharura kubwa hasa kuwa ni mambo ya uhai na kifo au upotevu wa kiungo, na hali hiyo haikuwepo kabisa katika miamala ya kibiashara. Mwanafunzi wake mkuu, Muhammad Rashed Ridaa (d. 1935), aliendeleza mashambulizi ya mwalimu wake dhidi ya Taqleed, lakini alikataa sehemu kubwa ya kupindukia kwa mwalimu wake. Hata hivyo, wanafunzi wengine wa Muhammad ‘Abduh walikuwa kiini cha harakati kali za usasa uliopitiliza, nao wakapotoka katika maeneo mengi zaidi hata kuliko mwalimu wao. Kwa mfano, mwanafunzi wake Qaasim Ameen (alifariki 1908) alikuwa wa kwanza kushambulia kwa ukali mitala, urahisi wa talaka katika Uislamu, na matumizi ya hijabu.

Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905 CE) was among Afghaanee’s most famous students. Under the influence of Afghaanee and Ibn Muhammad ‘Abduh, and Taqleed and its supporters were systematically attacked. But, due to Muhammad ‘Abduh’s leaning toward extreme modernism, he eventually deviated in some of his interpretations and legal rulings. For example, in his Tafseer of the Qur’aan he Prophets of directly performed by God through the forces of nature. To him the flocks of birds which dropped clay pebbles on the army of Abrahah and his elephant during their attack on the Ka’bah were simply airborne microbes which spread disease among them. Likewise, he made a Fatwaa allowing Muslims to be involved in business transactions involving interest. He based this ruling on the Fiqh principle that dire necessity makes the forbidden allowable. The fallacy of his ruling lay in the fact that Fiqh specifically defines dire necessity as involving matters of life and death or loss of limb, and this was simply not the case where business transactions are concerned. Muhammad ‘Abduh’s main student, Muhammad Rashed Ridaa (d. 1935), carried on his mentor’s attack on Taqleed, but rejected most of his teacher’s excesses. However, other students of Muhammad ‘Abduh became the nucleus of the extreme modernist movement and deviated in many areas even more than their teacher. For example, his student Qaasim Ameen (died 1908) was the first to make a vehement attack on polygamy, the simplicity of Islamic divorce and the use of the veil.

Wasomi wengine wa karne ya ishirini, kama Hassan al-Bannaa (d. 1949), mwanzilishi wa harakati ya Ikhwaan Muslimoon, Sayyid, Abul-A'laa Mawdudi (1903-1979), mwanzilishi wa harakati ya Jama'at Islami, na hivi karibuni mwanachuoni mkubwa wa Hadeeth wa zama zetu, Naasir ad-Deen al-Albaanee, wameinua bendera ya Uamsho wa Kiislamu na kutoa wito wa kuunganishwa kwa Madhhab.196 Lakini hadi leo, wanachuoni wengi bado wamefungwa kwa nguvu katika Uislamu wa kimadhhebu, katika umbo la mojawapo ya Madhhab nne.

Other scholars of the twentieth century, such as Hassan alBannaa (d.1949), founder of the Ikhwaan Muslimoon movement Sayyid, Abul-A’laa Mawdudi (1903-1979), founder of the Jama’at Islami movement, and more recently the great Hadeeth scholar of our era, Naasir ad-Deen al-Albaanee have picked up the banner of Islamic Revival and have called for the unfication of the Madhhabs.196 But, to this day, the majority of scholars remain firmly bound to sectarian Islaam in the form of one of the four Madh-habs.

Kwa kufanya hivyo, wao bila kujua wanaendeleza mgawanyiko miongoni mwa safu za umma wa Kiislamu. Wala haonekani kuwa na matumaini mengi ya kumalizika kwa mchakato huu hivi karibuni; kwani, isipokuwa kwa tofauti chache sana, taasisi za elimu za Kiislamu za leo kote katika ulimwengu wa Kiislamu zinaeneza kwa bidii mtazamo wa kimadhehebu wa Uislamu.

In doing so, they unknowingly perpetuate division among the ranks of the Muslim nation. Nor does there appear to be much hope for an end to this process in the near future; for, with very few exceptions, present day Islamic institutions of learning throughout the Muslim world actively propagate a sectarian view of Islaam.

Ni kweli kwamba fiqh linganishi sasa linapewa nafasi kubwa katika mitaala ya taasisi hizi, na masomo ya Hadith yamekuwa maarufu zaidi kuliko yalivyokuwa miaka mia moja iliyopita tu.

It is true that comparative Fiqh is now being given a prominent place in the syllabuses of these institutions, and the study of Hadeeth has become more popular than it was only a century ago.

Lakini ukweli ni kwamba masuala haya mawili yanayoweza kuwa na nguvu na kuleta mwamko mpya yamedhoofishwa na mfumo wa kimadhehebu wa elimu ya Kiislamu. Kila chuo kikuu kinafuata madhehebu rasmi ya nchi ilimo, na hivyo kozi zote kuu za Fiqh katika mtaala wa sheria ya Kiislamu (unaoitwa Sharee'ah au Usool al-Deen) hufundishwa kwa mujibu wa madhehebu ya serikali. Hili hufanyika ili kukidhi mahitaji ya serikali ya eneo husika ya majaji wanaolingana na madhehebu yanayotumika katika mfumo wa sheria ya kiraia wa nchi. Kwa mfano, Chuo Kikuu cha al-Azhar nchini Misri, taasisi inayoheshimiwa zaidi katika ulimwengu wa Kiislamu, ndicho chuo pekee ambamo madhehebu yote makuu yanafundishwa. Hata hivyo, wanafunzi wanaojiunga na chuo hicho hutakiwa kueleza madhehebu yao, kisha huwekwa katika darasa moja na wenzao wa madhehebu hayo. Kuanzia mwanzo wa masomo yao hadi wanapohitimu, walimu wao wote watakuwa wa madhehebu yao wenyewe. Kwa sababu hiyo, misimamo ya madhehebu mengine husomwa kama mambo ya ajabu tu, na vitabu vikuu vya Hadeeth husomwa zaidi kwa kupata baraka kuliko kwa ajili ya kufichua ukweli wa ufunuo. Kila mara mwanafunzi anapokutana na maoni yanayopingana katika masomo haya, mwalimu wa taasisi ya kimadhehebu huyachunguza juu juu na kuyakataa kwa hoja zenye nguvu alizozibuni kuunga mkono msimamo wa madhehebu yake mahsusi. Hivyo, ingawa misimamo mingine inaweza kuungwa mkono na dalili imara sana, matibabu ya mwalimu wa kimadhehebu yanawanyima stahili wanayostahili. Vilevile, ikiwa mtu atakutana na Hadeeth yenye nguvu inayoonekana kupingana na msimamo wa madhehebu wakati akisoma vitabu vya Hadeeth, mwalimu huyo either hu-ifasiri upya ili iunge mkono madhehebu yake, au aieleze kwa werevu kwa namna ya kuiondolea maana yake. Na ikiwa hilo na lile hayawezekani, mfululizo wa Hadeeth dhaifu hunukuliwa kuunga mkono msimamo wa madhehebu bila hata kutajwa kidogo kwamba ni dhaifu. Kwa njia hiyo, inaonekana kwamba kuna idadi kubwa zaidi ya Hadithi zinazounga mkono msimamo wa Madh-hab, na wanafunzi wanaamini usahihi wa Madh-hab yao.

But, the reality is that these two potentially dynamic and regenerative subjects have been defused by the sectarian system of Islamic education. Each university adheres to the official Madh-hab of the country in which it is situated and thus all the core Fiqh courses of the Islamic law Syllabus (called Sharee’ah or Usool al-Deen) are taught according to the state Madh-hab197. This is done to fulfill the local government’s need for judges who conform to the Madh-hab used in the civil law system of the state. For example, the University of al-Azhar in Egypt, the most venerated institution in the Muslim world, is the only university in which all of the major Madh-habs are taught. However, students entering the university are required to indicate their Madh-hab are placed in the same class. From the beginning of their studies until they graduate, all of their professors will be from their own Madh-hab. Accordingly, the positions of the other Madh-habs are studied merely as oddities, and the great books of Hadeeth are read more for the blessing than for the revelation of truth. Whenever a conflicting opinion is encountered in the course of these studies, the teacher in the sectarian institution examines it superficially and rejects it in the light of the compelling arguments, which he develops to support the position of his particular Madhhab. Thus, although other positions may be supported by very strong proofs, the sectarian teacher’s treatment denies them the consideration they deserve. Similarly, if a strong Hadeeth which appears contrary to the position taken by the Madh-hab is met while reading the books of Hadeeth, the teacher either re-interprets it to support his Madh-hab or he deftly explains it away. And if neither of the two is possible, a series of weak Hadeeths are quoted in support of the Madh-hab’s position without the slightest mention that they are weak. In that way, it appears that there is a greater number of Hadeeths supporting the Madh-hab’s position, and the students are convinced of the correctness of their Madh-hab.

1. Ijtihaad kwa aina zake zote iliwekwa kando, na taqlidi ya upofu kwa mmoja wa madhehebu manne ilifanywa kuwa ya lazima kwa Waislamu wote.

1. Ijtihaad in all its forms was put aside, and the blind following (Taqleed) of one of the four Madh-habs was made compulsory on all Muslims.

2. Madhehebu nne zilikuwa hazioani kabisa, na Umma wa Kiislamu uligawanyika karibu kabisa katika madhehebu nne za kidini.

2. The four Madh-habs became totally incompatible and the Muslim Ummah was virtually split into four religeous sects.

3. Shughuli za kielimu zilikuwa zimezuiwa kwa kuandika tafsiri (sharh) za kazi zilizotangulia na kueneza msimamo wa Madh-hab mahsusi ya mwandishi, kama ilivyokuwa katika kipindi cha kuimarishwa.

3. Scholarly activity was restricted to writing commentaries on previous works and promoting the position of the author’s particular Madh-hab as in the period of consolidation.

4. Kulikuwa na juhudi za kupongezwa zilizofanywa na baadhi ya wanamageuzi kurejesha asili halisi na yenye nguvu ya Fiqh, lakini juhudi zao zilionekana kutoweza kukabiliana na kazi ya kuondoa fanaka ya Madh-hab, ambayo ilikuwa imekita mizizi sana.

4. There were commendable attepts by certain reformers to revive the original and dynamic nature of Fiqh, but their efforts proved unequal to the task of eradicating Madh-hab fanaticism which had became so deeply ingrained.

5. Majaribio ya kuweka sheria za Kiislamu katika mfumo wa kanuni yalifanywa, lakini matokeo yake yaliathiriwa na mitazamo ya kimadhehebu, na pale ukoloni wa Ulaya ulipoibuka, kanuni hizo zilibadilishwa na kanuni za sheria za Ulaya.

5. Attempts at the codification of Islamic law were made, but the results suffered from sectarian views, and with the advent of European colonialism they were supplanted by European law codes.

6. Katika miaka ya hivi karibuni kumepungua kidogo ufuasi wa kupindukia kwa madhehebu, kutokana na harakati za kurekebisha fikra za Kiislamu na kuenea kwa mafundisho ya fiqh linganishi katika taasisi za elimu za kisasa.

6. There has been some lessening of Madh-hab fanaticism in recent years as a result of the reformist movements and the wide-spread teaching of comparative Fiqh in modern institutions of learning.

7. Hali ya kudorora na kudidimia kwa Fiqh pamoja na kuwepo kwa mifarakano ya madhehebu kumeendelea hadi leo.

7. The state of stagnation and decline of Fiqh and the existence of Madh-hab factionalism have continued until the present day.