胚胎发育的下一个阶段，在古兰经的描述中，是以肌肉包裹骨骼。“kasauna”一词的意思是：穿上、披上、着装、装饰。它还含有以下含义：悬挂、覆盖、面对、衬里以及包裹。对该词的进一步解释还包括：包藏、遮盖、放置、滑入，以及呈现出某种外观、使之看起来像。79 “lahm”一词的意思是肉、肌肉，或一块肉、一块肌肉。80 81

The next stage in the qur’anic description of the development of the human embryo is clothing the bones with flesh. The word kasauna means: to clothe, to dress, to garb and to attire. It also carries the meanings of: to hang, to drape, to face, to line and to case. Further interpretations of the word include: to incase, to cover, to put, to slip and to give the appearance of and make look like.79 The word lahm means flesh, meat, or a piece of flesh or meat. 80 81

这一阶段在《古兰经》中所用的词语，与现代胚胎学的描述惊人地吻合。"卡萨乌纳"（kasauna）一词指肌成细胞的迁移与聚集，这些细胞组织成背侧和腹侧的肌肉团，包裹着正在发育的骨骼。这些生理发育过程，可以从"卡萨乌纳"所含的词义中得到说明，如：穿上衣服、着装、包裹、遮盖。"拉赫姆"（lahm）一词不仅限于四肢肌肉，也适用于包绕中轴骨骼的肌肉团。

The words used in the Qur’an to describe this stage are remarkably consistent with modern embryology. The word kasauna denotes the migration and aggregation of the myoblasts which organize into dorsal and ventral muscle masses surrounding the developing skeleton. These physiological developments are illustrated by the meanings kasauna carries, such as: to clothe, to dress, to incase and to cover. The word lahm is not just limited to the limb muscles but also applies to the muscles masses surrounding the axial skeleton.

Barry Mitchell 和 Ram Sharma 阐明了肌肉在发育中的肢体骨骼上形成的过程:

Barry Mitchell and Ram Sharma elucidate the process of muscle formation over the developing limb skeleton:

肢体肌肉从近端肢芽中的成肌细胞分化而来，并很快从脊神经的腹侧支获得神经支配。随后，成肌细胞向远端迁移，很快组织成背侧和腹侧两团肌肉，包绕发育中的骨骼，并携带着它们的神经支配一同迁移。82。

The limb muscles differentiate from myoblasts in the proximal part of the limb bud, and soon receive their innervations from the ventral rami of the spinal nerves. The myoblasts then migrate distally and soon become organized into a dorsal and ventral muscles mass surrounding the developing skeleton, carrying their innervations with them.82.

约翰·艾伦（John Allen）与贝弗利·克莱默（Beverley Kramer）证实了肢体肌肉的形成过程：在软骨状骨模型建立后不久，成肌细胞（此时已成为成肌母细胞）聚集，在肢体的腹侧和背侧形成肌肉团。这些肌肉团，即相应的区室，构成关节的屈肌和伸肌。旋转肌也随之形成，使屈肌与旋前肌相关联，伸肌与旋后肌相关联。83

John Allen and Beverley Kramer confirm how limb muscles are formed: Soon after the cartilaginous models of the bones have been established, the myogenic cells, which have now become myoblasts, aggregate to form muscle masses on the ventral and dorsal aspects of the limbs. These muscle masses, the relevant compartments, form the flexors and extensors of the joints. Rotator muscles are also formed so that flexors and pronators are related and extensors and supinators are related.83.

肌肉的形成过程并不仅限于四肢。骨骼框架一旦就位，肌肉便开始围绕正在发育的骨骼形成。例如，胚胎学家布鲁斯·卡尔森（Bruce Carlson）指出，面部肌肉是在面部基本骨骼结构形成之后才开始形成的。84

The process of muscular formation is not just limited to the limbs. Once the skeletal framework is in place, muscles start to form around the developing skeleton. For example, embryologist Bruce Carlson highlights how the facial musculature forms once the basic facial skeletal structure takes place.84

Kausana 与 lahm（本阶段的关键词）：肢体和中轴骨骼周围的肌肉细胞迁移并聚集，形成肌肉、肌腱和结缔组织。

Kausana and lahm (the key words in this stage): the migration and aggregation of the muscles cells around the developing limb and axial skeleton, to form muscles, tendons and connective tissue.

据学术界历史学家的论断,先知穆罕默德ﷺ抄袭了希腊哲学家亚里士多德的这一观点。亚里士多德的以下论述“骨骼周围,借由细小的纤维状带子与之相连,生长出肉质部分,而骨骼的存在正是为了它们”85,似乎与古兰经的经文“然后我们给骨头披上肉”相吻合。

Academic historians attest the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ plagiarised this stage from the Greek Philosopher Aristotle. Artistotle’s following statement “Round about the bones, and attached to them by thin fibrous brands, grow fleshy parts, for the sake of which the bones exist”85 seems to correlate with the qur’anic statement “then we clothed the bones with flesh”.

在比较这些陈述后可以清楚地看到，《古兰经》对肌肉如何形成的过程有着深入而详尽的认识。经文中用“kasauna”（包裹、覆盖）一词，描绘了成肌细胞的“聚集”与“向远端迁移”。亚里士多德的描述中则没有这样的细节。必须指出，围绕骨骼的成肌细胞迁移无法用肉眼看到。这一事实给人一种印象：《古兰经》具有神圣的本质，并再次印证了它作为通往超验事物的路标的作用。

In comparing the statements it is clear the Qur’an demonstrates an intimate and detailed knowledge of the process of how muscles are formed. A depiction of the myoblasts ‘aggregating’ and ‘migrating distally’ is made with the qur’anic mention of kasauna (to clothe and incase). This level of detail is not, however, included in Aristotle's description. It must be noted that the migration of the myoblasts surrounding the bones cannot be seen with the naked eye. This fact creates an impression of the Divine nature of the Qur'an and reiterates its role as a signpost to the transcendent.

这两段陈述之间的相似之处，可以提供一个有意义且值得重视的视角。它并不是否定《古兰经》的真实性，反而有助于推翻那种认为先知穆罕默德ﷺ抄袭了亚里士多德的说法。首先引起思考的问题是：如果先知ﷺ真的取材于亚里士多德的著作，那么为何《古兰经》只包含了正确的信息，却拒绝收录亚里士多德的错误信息呢？

An interesting and significant perspective can be taken considering the similarities between both these statements. Rather than negate the authenticity of the Qur’an, it serves to dismantle the claims that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ copied Aristotle. What is primarily brought to mind is the question of how, if the Prophet ﷺ is supposed to have taken from Aristotle’s work, is it the Qur’an only contains the correct information and refused to include Aristotle’s incorrect information?

在进一步探讨上述问题的过程中，剽窃论的若干问题浮现出来，这些问题必然证明了《古兰经》的可信性与真实性。例如，我们如何解释先知ﷺ没有采纳亚里士多德的观点，即男性胚胎在子宫的左侧生成，女性胚胎在子宫的右侧生成？86 又如，《古兰经》并未提及亚里士多德那个已被否定且被误用的理论，即精液与女性的经血混合并凝结形成胚胎？还有，《古兰经》在受精阶段specify的是nutfah而非haydh（经血），这种区别是由什么造成的？此外，亚里士多德认为上半身先于下半身形成：“身体的上部是在胚胎形成的过程中最先被划分出来的；下部则随着时间的推移而获得生长。”87

In exploring the above question further problems with the plagiarisation thesis are brought to light, which inevitably prove the credibility and authenticity of the Qur'an. For example, how can we explain the Prophet ﷺ not adopting the Aristotelian view that male embryos are generated on the left side of the womb, and female embryos on the right side of the womb? 86 Or the fact that the Qur’an does not mention Aristotle’s discredited and misapplied theory of semen mixing with women’s menstrual blood coagulating to form the embryo? And what caused the distinction between the Qur’an’s specification of nutfah instead of haydh (menstrual blood) during the stage of fertilization? Moreover, Aristotle held the belief that the upper body is formed before the lower body: Now the upper portion of the body is the first to be marked off in the course of the embryo's formation; the lower portion receives its growth as time goes on. 87.

这又是一个《古兰经》没有提到的概念。

Again, this is a concept the Qur’an does not mention.

如果要认真对待"亚里士多德抄袭"这一说法,我们必须提出最后一个问题:既然当时没有科学方法能够证明或驳斥亚里士多德的论断,《古兰经》为何偏偏省去了这些错误的推测?《古兰经》在描述这一阶段时选用的词语(披上肉)需要对成肌细胞的迁移有深入的了解。这一过程在《古兰经》中得到了令人惊叹的描绘,但正如前文所解释的,它是肉眼无法看到的。

If the claim that Aristotle was plagiarised is to be taken seriously we must ask a final question: why, when there was no scientific way of proving or disproving Aristotle’s statements as true, does the Qur’an choose to specifically omit these wrong conjectures? The Qur’an’s particular choice of the word to describe this stage (to clothe) would require an intimate knowledge of the migration of the myoblasts. This process, remarkably illustrated in the Qur’an, cannot - as explained - be seen with the naked eye.

因此可见，这些论点是非理性的、带有概率性的，并且缺乏解释力和涵盖范围。两种表述之间的相似之处，正是用来解构剽窃论的手段，因为该论点所依据的，是先知穆罕默德ﷺ同时获取正确信息、找到更简练的措辞来描述这一过程、摒弃错误信息，并纳入希腊文献中未提及的过程其他方面的那种极其微小、近乎不可能的概率。

As such, it is apparent these contentions are irrational and probabilistic, and suffer from a lack of explanatory power and scope. The likeness between both statements is a means to deconstruct the plagiarisation thesis, as it is based on the extreme and infinitesimal probability that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ would take the correct information, at the same time find more concise words to describe the process, reject the incorrect information and include other aspects of the process not mentioned in Greek literature

批评者认为，《古兰经》对发育中人类胚胎的描述所用的词语"lahm"（肉）并不是最准确的词，而"adlat"（肌肉）更为恰当。这种观点站不住脚，因为"lahm"一词的含义要宽泛得多。它的含义包括肌肉，也包括肌腱和结缔组织等其他肉体组成部分，而这些在这一阶段都已参与其中。约翰·艾伦和贝弗利·克拉默对这一阶段作了如下解释：

Critics of the qur’anic description of the developing human embryo maintain that the word lahm (flesh) is not the most accurate word to use and the word adlat (muscle) is more appropriate. This approach is insubstantial because the word lahm is far more comprehensive. It includes muscle and other aspects of flesh such as tendons and connective tissue in its meaning, all of which are involved at this stage. John Allen and Beverley Kramer explain this stage:

最终,肌肉和肌腱附着于骨骼结构上,从而能够跨越关节产生运动。88

Ultimately, the muscles and tendons become attached to the bony structures so that they can produce their actions across the joints.88

该陈述证明了对"lahm"（肉）的限定是无效的。仅仅指明"肌肉"不足以全面描述这一阶段所发生的情况。

This statement proves the imposition against lahm to be ineffective. Simply specifying ‘muscle’ would not be comprehensive enough to describe what occurs at this stage

评注者们就《古兰经》中对发育中人类胚胎的描述提出批评，声称经文所描述的骨骼与血肉包裹的先后顺序不准确。他们断言，骨骼和肌肉的形成是同时发生的，但《古兰经》使用了连接词 fa（ف），而在该节经文的语境中，它表示一件事紧接着另一件事发生。例如，《古兰经》说：“我使那块肉变成骨骼，然后（fa）我用肉包裹那些骨骼。”

Commentators on the qur’anic description of the developing human embryo claim the Qur’an portrays an inaccurate succession of events with regards to the bones and the clothing of the flesh. They declare bone and muscle formations occur simultaneously, but the Qur’an uses the connective particle fa, which in the context of the verse, indicates a quick succession of one thing happening after the other. For instance the Qur’an says “We made that lump into bones, and (fa) We clothed those bones with flesh”.

这种观点误解了该经文的语言语境。《古兰经》中助词 fa（然后）所用的语境并不是“创造”，而是“用血肉包裹骨骼”。《古兰经》并未明确肌肉或血肉是何时形成的，它只说明了骨骼被血肉包裹发生在什么时候。正如约翰·艾伦（John Allen）和贝弗利·克莱默（Beverley Kramer）所解释的，这紧接其后发生：

This view represents a misunderstanding of the linguistic context of the verse. The Qur’an’s use of the particle fa is not in the context of creating; rather it is in the context of clothing the bones with flesh. The Qur’an does not specify when the flesh (or muscles) were formed; it only specifies when the clothing of the limb bones with flesh happens. This, as John Allen and Beverley Kramer explain, is straight after:

在软骨骨模型刚刚形成之后不久，已成为成肌细胞的肌源性细胞聚集，在肢体的腹侧和背侧形成肌肉团。89

Soon after the cartilaginous models of the bones have been established, the myogenic cells, which have now become myoblasts, aggregate to form muscle masses on the ventral and dorsal aspects of the limbs. 89

这一说法需要澄清：此论断缺乏科学依据，因为肢体骨骼与肌肉的形成并非同时进行。胚胎学家布鲁斯·卡尔森（Bruce Carlson）确认，肢体骨骼先于肢体肌肉形成：骨骼是肢体中最早出现明显分化迹象的主要组织。90

A significant clarification to make is that this contention has no scientific basis because limb bone and muscle formation are not simultaneous. Embryologist Bruce Carlson confirms the limb bones as being formed before the limb muscles: The skeleton is the first major tissue of the limb to show overt signs of differentiation. 90