Introduction 1 Arabic: sing. balad; plural bilad.

2 Biladuna Filastin is also an eleven-volume work of reference on the historical geography of Palestine by Palestinian author Mustafa Murad al-Dabbagh (1965

and 1972‒1986). This important encyclopaedia of Palestine is arranged by region and surveys the cities, towns and villages of Palestine from geographical, historical, archaeological, botanical and economic perspectives.

3 See, for instance, Ghalib Muhammad Samrin, Qaryati Qaluniya: Al-ard wa-aljudhur:

Filastinuna fi qissat qaryah (1993 [Arabic]); Fateh’s underground magazine which first appeared in 1959 was called Filastinuna.

4 ‘Azmi Beshara on the existence of a Palestinian People’, at https://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=EOqAGbpoDZc, posted 30 April 2009.

5 http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/Archive/1998/1948/378_said.htm 6 Monolatrism (Greek: monos: single and latreia: worship) was belief in the existence of many gods but with the worship of only one supreme deity. An example of monolatrism was the ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Amenhotep IV who installed himself as a supreme divinity (‘God of gods’) and officially changed his name to Akhenaten and introduced Atenism during his reign (1348/1346 BC). Under Akhenaten’s successors, Egypt reverted to its traditional polytheism and Akhenaten himself came to be seen as a heretic.

7 Interview with William Montgomery Watt at: http://www.alastairmcintosh.

com/articles/2000_watt.htm 8 Samaritanism is one the four distinct Abrahamic traditions of Palestine. The Samaritan tradition centres on the belief in the sanctity of Mount Gerizim (Arabic:

Jabal Jarizim or Jabal al-Tur), one of the two mountains in the immediate vicinity of the Palestine city of Nablus. The mountain, which continues to be the centre of Samaritan religion to this day, is sacred to the Palestinian Samaritans who regard it, not Jerusalem, as having been the location of the holy temple. The Samaritan scripture is a text of five books written in the Samaritan alphabet. Some 6000

differences exist between the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Old Testament.

9 Classical Antiquity is a term broadly applied here to a long period of history (over a millennium) during which ‘Classical culture’ centred on the Mediterranean region and comprised the intimate interaction of the civilisations of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome with the ‘Near East’. It is a period in which Greek and Roman cultural influences not only flourished but also wielded enormous influence throughout Southern Europe, South-Eastern Asia, the ‘Near East’ and North Africa.

10 Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, ‘Palestine’, Encyclopaedia Britannica, http://www.

britannica.com/place/Palestine 11 Josephus (Hebrew: Yosef ben Matityahu).calls himself in Greek as Iōsēpos (Ιώσηπος), son of Matthias.

12 The Palestinian village of Qaysariah was destroyed by Jewish forces in 1948.

Chapter 1

1 The Story of Sinuhe is considered one of the finest works of fiction of Ancient Egyptian literature. Its narrative is set in the aftermath of the death of Pharaoh Amenemhat I who founded the 12th Dynasty in the early 20th century BC. The popularity of this story is evident from the many surviving fragments. Egyptologists argue about its composition date; here we take the conservative date of the 14th century BC. It could be earlier, but it is not known to be.

2 Ramesses II is the most famous of the Pharaohs; in popular legendary imagination he has become the ‘Pharaoh of the Exodus’.

3 The ancient Greek authors give to Africa the name of Libya.

4 The site most likely of Gath is Tell al-Safi, a Palestinian village 35 kilometres north-west of Hebron, depopulated by Israeli in 1948.

5 In Wadi al-Surar (modern Hebrew: Nahal Sorek).

6 Isdud was a large Palestinian village depopulated by Israel in 1948.

7 In 677/676 the Assyrian king Esarhaddon conquered Sidon and in 675 BC concluded a treaty with king Ba’al I of Tyre designed to neutralise the city in the Assyrian struggle with the Egyptians. Esarhaddon’s Treaty with Ba’al is an Assyrian clay tablet inscription in Akkadian cuneiform describing a treaty between the Assyrian king Esarhaddon and King Ba’al I of Tyre. It was discovered in Nineveh in the Library of Ashurbanipal and fragments are currently in the British Museum.

The treaty, published K 3500 + K 4444 + K 10235, was identified by Hugo Winckler in his Altorientalische Forschungen, II (Ancient Near Eastern Studies) in 1898.

Under the terms of the treaty, Esarhaddon entrusted Baal with several settlements, including Acre, Dor and Byblos. The text includes: ‘If a ship of Ba’al or of the people of ṣur-ri [Tyre] is shipwrecked off the coast of the land of pi-lis-ti [Pilistu] or anywhere on the borders of Assyrian territory, everything that is on the ship belongs to Esarhaddon ... These are the ports of trade and the trade roads which Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, granted to his servant Ba’al; toward a-ku [Acre], .du-uʾ-ri [Dor; Tantur], in the entire district of.pi-lis-te [Pilistu]’.

8 For an extensive discussion of the Palestine Nakba, see Masalha (1992, 1997, 2005, 2012) and Khalidi W. (1992).

Chapter 2

1 Herodotus (1858), at: https://archive.org/stream/herodotus00herouoft/herodotus00herouoft_ djvu.txt 2 Encyclopaedia Britannica, at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristotle/ Political-theory 3 1st century BC Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (Diodorus of Sicily), in his multi-volume work Bibliotheca Historica, indicated that Coele-Syria stretched as far south as Joppa (Jaffa) in Palestine (Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica, XIX, 93; XXIX, 29; translation by Charles Henry Oldfather.

Chapter 3

1 See for instance, Ovid, Metamorphoses Book IV, http://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/ trans/Metamorph4.htm 2 Balsam, the name of the fragrant gum of the balsam tree, is derived from the Arabic Balasam; in Latin: balsamum; Greek: βάλσαμον; Hebrew: bosem.

3 Appian of Alexandria, ‘Preface of the Roman History’, Livius.org, http://www.

livius.org/sources/content/appian/appian-preface-1/? Also in 150 AD Greco- Roman historian Arrianus of Nicomedia (modern Izmit, Turkey), in Anabasis Alexandri, which describes the campaigns of Alexander the Great, writes: ‘On the right side of the Red Sea beyond Babylonia is the chief part of Arabia, and of this a part comes down to the sea of Phoenicia and Palestinian Syria’ (Arrian 2006: 89).

4 http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm 5 Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Volume 1, Book V: Chapter 13, http://penelope.

uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/home.html 6 Pomponius Mela, De Chorographia Liber Primus, Thelatinlibrary.com, http:// www.thelatinlibrary.com/pomponius1.html 7 See also ibid.

8 ‘Philo Judaeus’, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, http://www.britannica.com/ biography/Philo-Judaeus 9 ‘Every Good Man is Free’, XII.75.

10 In comparison, the total population of Pharisees, the forerunners of modern Rabbinic Judaism, were estimated by Josephus at 6000 (Flavius 2004).

11 ‘Early Jewish Writings’, http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book33.

html.

Chapter 4

1 Provincia Arabia, or the Roman Arabia Petraea, was the birth place of ‘Philip the Arab’, Roman Emperor from 244 to 249 AD. Philip went on to become a major figure in the Roman Empire (Bowersock 1994: 122).

2 Peraea (Greek: Περαία, ‘the country beyond’), occupied the eastern side of the Jordan River valley. Subsequently the term was replaced by the Latin Transjordan.

3 The Romans promoted a regime of autonomous city-states in Palestine. A league of ten (or eleven) Hellenised cities in Eastern Palestine and Syria was formed after the Roman conquest in 63 BC; apart from Scythopolis (modern Beisan), all lay east of the Jordan River. The league survived until the 2nd century AD.

4 The Romans divided Arabia into three regions: Arabia Petraea, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix (Fertile Arabia), which included the Yemen.

5 Greek: Καισάρεια; the modern Palestinian village of Qaysariah; depopulated and destroyed by Israel in 1948.

6 Praeses (Latin: praesides), a term used under Constantine the Great (r. 306–337)

to refer to specific class of provincial governors, the lowest after the consulares and the correctors.

7 Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, ‘Palestine’, Encyclopaedia Britannica, http://www.

britannica.com/place/Palestine 8 In comparison, the total population of Palestine west of the River Jordan at the height of the Roman period did not exceed one million (Pastor 1997: 6)

9 Located on coastal dunes 10 kilometres south of Gaza city; the archaeological remains of what is known in Arabic as Tell Umm al-Amr; built by St. Hilarion (born in southern Gaza in 329 AD), the monk after whom it was named.

10 Miaphysites believe that the nature of Jesus, divine and human, are united in one. Although Chalcedonian Christianity considered Miaphysitism in general to be amenable to an orthodox interpretation, they nevertheless perceive it to be a form of Monophysitism.

11 ‘Bowl from Caesarea Palaestina’, http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/ bowl-caesarea-Palaestinae and http://www.louvre.fr/oeuvre-notices/la-coupede- cesaree-de-palestine 12 ‘Caesarea Palaestina’, New Advent (Catholic Encyclopaedia), http://www.newadvent.

org/cathen/03134b.htm 13 The term for an edition of the Old Testament in six versions, an immense wordfor- word comparison of the Greek Septuagint with Greek translations.

14 ‘Caesarea Palaestina’, New Advent (Catholic Encyclopaedia), at: http://www.

newadvent.org/cathen/03134b.htm 15 http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_martyrs.htm. St Albina of Caesarea, who died in the 3rd century, is also listed in the Roman Catholic Martyrology.

16 http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2504.html.

17 Originally the title ‘titular see’ applied to patribus infidelium (‘in the lands of the unbelievers’). In 1882 the Catholic Church, seeking to improve relations with Orthodox Christians and avoid causing offence to Muslims, abolished the expression in partibus infidelium.

18 Bishop Antiochus represented the city of Capitolias, in Palaestinae Secunda, an ancient city east of the River Jordan and is identified with the modern village of Beit Ras in the Irbid region.

19 The Seven Ecumenical Councils, Christian Classics Ethereal Library, http:// www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.xi.xv.html 20 The expression is derived from the Classical Greek ἐγκώμιον (enkomion)

meaning ‘the praise of a person or thing’.

21 Local farming in the Gaza region depended largely on the annual rain fall; today Gaza city enjoys 400 mm of annual rain fall, while the more arid region of Rafah, located 20 kilometres to the south, gets only 200 mm.

22 Ruth Webb, ‘Rhetorical and Theatrical Fictions in Chorikios of Gaza’, Center for Hellenic Studies, Harvard University, http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/ display/3259

23 Timothy W. Seid, ‘Origins of Catena in Gaza’, http://legacy.earlham.edu/~seidti/ iam/catena.html 24 Le Stampa, 12 May 2015, http://www.lastampa.it/2015/05/12/esteri/vaticaninsider/ en/when-muslim-politicians-send-their-daughters-to-conventschools- 5xtR7LSxokCjnjuFLHwjAM/pagina.html 25 http://archmemory.blogspot.co.uk/2015/05/forgotten-as-if-you-never-were.html 26 Among the prominent Christian ascetics of the period was Barsanuphius of Palestine (died c. 540 AD). Born in Egypt, he lived in a Palestinian monastery in absolute seclusion for fifty years (Barsanuphius 2006).

27 St Anthony (251–356), a Coptic monk, became known as both the father and founder of desert monasticism. The Desert Mothers are less well known because the lives of the early saints were written by men for male monastic audiences (King 1989).

28 Coenobium is a communal monastery with a number of structures surrounded by a wall and the monks lived in a commune. This term is based on the Greek koinos (common) and bios (life).

29 In Sufi Islam, the tariqah, or ‘path’, metaphor is taken by the mystic towards the inner truth.

30 Sabbas’ Life was written by one of his disciples, Cyril of Scythopolis (525‒559)

(modern Beisan) in Palaestinae Secunda, a Christian monk and historian of monastic life in Palestine in the early years of Christianity (Kazhdan 1991). His work known in English as The Lives of the Monks of Palestine is one of the main sources of monastic life in Byzantine Palestine.

31 Mar Saba Monastery is one of thirteen Palestinian sites included on the list submitted to UNESCO following the admission of Palestine to this organisation in 2011.

32 Al-Jazeera, 22 February 2010.

Chapter 6

1 The period of the Umayyad Marwanid Caliphs began with Marwan ibn al-Hakam in 684.

2 http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jerusalem-architecture-in-the-umayyadperiod 3 This mixture of Islamic and Roman Byzantine styles is also found in the ‘Hisham Palace’/Khirbat al-Mafjar, Jericho, and in al-Ramla and Tiberias (Khirbet al-Minyar). It is also found in the Arab Byzantine coinage minted in the towns of Jund Filastin in the 7th century.

4 This Palestinian town, located 15 kilometres south-west of al-Ramla, with a population of 5420 in 1948, was destroyed by Israel in 1948.

5 Via Maris is the modern name for an ancient trade and strategic rout dating from the Early Bronze Age. It connected Egypt with Syria and the Fertile Crescent and followed the coast of Palestine through the ancient cities of Gaza, ‘Asqalan, Isdud, Jaffa and Tantur before turning east through Megiddo and the Esdraelon valley until it reached Tiberias, then through the Golan Heights to Damascus.

6 Arsuf was about 16 kilometres north of Jaffa and 34 kilometres south of Caesarea on the Mediterranean coast. Under the Byzantines in the 5th‒6th centuries AD it was the second largest city in the coastal region of Palaestinae Prima, second only to Caesarea. It was populated by Samaritans and Christians and had a prosperous glass industry with products exported to Mediterranean countries. Under early Islam the city continued to prosper and large pottery production was developed (Hütteroth and Abdulfattah 1977: 140).

7 Le Strange commented that al-Maqdisi’s ‘description of Palestine, and especially of Jerusalem, his native city, is one of the best parts of the work. All that he wrote is the fruit of his own observation, and his descriptions of the manners and customs of the various countries, bear the stamp of a shrewd and observant mind, fortified by profound knowledge of both books and men’ (Le Strange 1890: 5‒6).

8 ‘Legio VI Ferrata’, http://www.livius.org/articles/legion/legio-vi-ferrata/?; Kennedy (1980).

9 ‘Coin/Archives’, http://www.coinarchives.com/w/results.php?search=fals+and+ islamic 10 Aelia Capitolina was the official Roman and Byzantine name of Jerusalem until 638 AD when the Arabs occupied the city and initially kept the first part of the name as ‘Ilya’ (al-Maqdisi 2002: 43).

11 The collections of the Israeli Municipal Museum of al-Ramla contain a range of medieval Islamic coins including a hoard of 376 gold dinars and six gold bars discovered in 1964 in the vicinity of the White Mosque compound. See http:// en.goramla.com/category/ramla-museum-1

12 This Palestinian town was depopulated and destroyed by Israel in 1948 and the Jewish settlement of Azor now stands on the lands of the Arab town.

13 ‘Al-Yazuri’, Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edition, edited by P. Bearman, T.

Bianqui, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs (Leiden: Brill Online).

Chapter 7

1 https://www.wdl.org/en/item/2892/ 2 https://truthaholics.wordpress.com/2017/12/11/records-of-jerusalem-deedsfound- in-ottoman-archives-cause-israel-unease/ A similar proportion of waqf properties (20‒25 per cent) also existed in the Palestinian city of Acre during the late Ottoman period (Reiter 2010: 110).

3 The Nea Church was destroyed during the Persian conquest of the city in 614, but its remains were further used as a source of building material by the Umayyads few decades later (Ben-Dov 1977).

4 The fair also exhibited the Illés Relief model of the Old city of Jerusalem, a model hand-crafted from molten zinc and is hand-painted. It was hand-crafted between 1864 and 1873 by Stephen Illés, a Hungarian Catholic who lived in Palestine.

Chapter 8

1 ‘The Palestinian People is a Colonial Invention’, in Azmi Beshara on the existence of a Palestinian People, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EOqAGbpoDZc , posted 30 April 2009.

2 https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lWcChegBF2sC&pg=RA1-PA65&redir_ esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false 3 Yusuf al-Natsheh, ‘Suq al-Qattanin (Market of the Cotton Merchants)’, in Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers, 2016, http://www.discoverislamicart.

org/database_item.php?id=monument;isl;pa;mon01;6;en 4 A Gazetteer of the World. Or Dictionary of Geographical Knowledge. Vol. 1 (Edinburgh and London: A. Fullarton and Co. 1959): 38‒39.

5 The original small settlement was built on the slopes of Mount Carmel in in the late Bronze Age (14th century BC).

6 The sequin was a gold coin minted by the Republic of Venice from the 13th century until the takeover of Venice by Napoleon in 1797. Following the Venetian model, similar coins were used for centuries throughout the Mediterranean, in Palestine and throughout the Ottoman Empire.

Chapter 9

1 https://arablit.org/2013/01/15/we-have-on-this-earth-what-makes-life-worthliving/ 2 http://www.all-poetry.ru/stih307.html 3 The first Russian writer who went to Palestine as a pilgrim was Dmitrij Daškov, a diplomat and the second counsellor of the Russian Embassy in Istanbul. He wrote an essay entitled ‘Russkie poklonniki v Ierusalime. Otryvok iz putešestvija po Grecii i Palestine v 1820’ (Merlo 2013).

4 ‘Jerusalem (After 1291)’, New Advent (Catholic Encyclopedia), 1910, http://www.

newadvent.org/cathen/08364a.htm; also Hummel and Hummel (1995). Other accounts put the figures at 15,000 in 1910 and 12,000 in 1913: http://www.josephzeitoun.

com/2015/07/ 5 The founding father of the Israeli state David Grun (later David Ben-Gurion)

was born in the Russian Empire and immigrated to Palestine 1906. After the First World War broke out, Ben-Gurion, a Russian subject, was deported by the Ottoman authorities from Palestine and he returned to Palestine with occupying British forces in 1918.

6 ‘Jerusalem (After 1291)’, New Advent (Catholic Encyclopedia), 1910, http:// www.newadvent.org/cathen/08364a.htm 7 http://www.pef.org.uk/Pages/Warren.htm 8 https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CydMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA155&dq=filastin& hl=en&ei=XuBVTa-bEc-EhQfR36C0DA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result& redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=filastin&f=false 9 The province became known as vilayet in the late 1860s.

10 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1913_Ottoman_Geography_Textbook_ Showing_the_Sanjak_of_Jerusalem_and_Palestine.jpeg 11 Mikhail Nu‘aymah (1889‒1988), a Lebanese author and well-known Arab poet, was also educated at the Russian teachers college in Nazareth in 1902‒1906.

الجمعية الإمبراطورية الأرثوذكسية الفلسطينية 12 , http://www.mansaf.org/orth_society.

htm 13 See for example: ibid.

14 http://www.mansaf.org/orth_society.htm; https://arabic.rt.com/news/586864-130

15 http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/witness/2012/05/20125915313256768.

html (Masalha 2012).

16 ‘Святая земля: Отчет по командировке в Палестину и прилегающия к ней страны’ [Holy Land: Report on a Business Trip to Palestine and Adjacent Countries] (Kiev: Kiev Theological Academy, 1875).

17 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Manual_of_ Palestinean_Arabic%2C_for_self-instruction_1909.png 18 The ‘becoming of self ’ was often described in Darwish’s poetry as the ‘other self ’.

However the term ‘becoming of being’ is based on the insight Martin Heidegger developed in Being and Time (2010). The conception assumes that the ontological truth of being’s becoming (being in the world, being becomes progressively uncovered and articulated) is mediated by human thinking and action.

19 Nassar also published in 1911 the first book in Arabic on Zionism, entitled Zionism: Its History, Objective and Importance, in which he described Zionism as a settler-colonial movement seeking to displace the Palestinian Arabs in Palestine (Beška 2014a).

20 For a critique of Bracy’s work, see Beška (2012).

21 The historic name applies to the entire area of the eastern plateau of the Jordan valley including ‘Amman, then part of the Nablus sanjak.

22 Falastin, 31 January 1912, p. 1.

23 Yiannis Meimaris, ‘The Discovery of the Madaba Map: Mythology and Reality’, at: http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/mad/articles/MeimarisMap.html 24 See aso Khalidi, W. (1988); Kasmieh (1992).

25 To this letter, he received a reply from Theodor Herzl (Beška 2007).

26 Imad al-Din al-Isfahani, a chronicler and advisor to Saladin, was present at the Battle of Hittin and the subsequent campaign to expel the Crusaders from the Holy Land (al-Isfahani 1888).

27 Shukri al-‘Asali, ‘Kitab min Salah al-Din al- Ayyubi ila qa’id al-hamla al-Hawraniyya Sami Basha al-Faruqi’, al-Muqtabas, 5 December 1910, cited in Beška (2014b).

28 For further discussion on the leadership and goals of the Palestinian national movement during the Mandatory period, see al-Hut (1981).

29 See, for instance, Azmi Beshara, ‘The Palestinian People is a Colonial Invention’, in Azmi Beshara on the existence of a Palestinian People, https://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=EOqAGbpoDZc, posted 30 April 2009.

30 ‘Abd al-Hadi had been a founding member of the 1909 Paris-based underground al-Fatat (Jam’iyat al-’Arabiyah al-Fatat, ‘the Young Arab Society’), an Arab nationalist organisation which was devoted to Arab cultural and administrative autonomy and unity within the Ottoman system. ‘Abd al-Hadi had also served as private secretary of Amir Faisal at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919.

31 Aryeh Dayan, ‘The Communists Who Saved the Jewish State’, Haaretz, 9

May 2006, http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/the-communistswho- saved-the-jewish-state-1.187221

32 Published in the Israeli Official Gazette, No. 1 of the 5th Iyar, 5708 (14 May 1948).

Chapter 10

1 A speech delivered at a meeting of the French Zionist Federation, Paris, 28

March 1914, in Litvinoff (1983, paper 24: 115‒116).

2 See protocol of Ruppin’s statement at the Jewish Agency Executive’s meeting, 20

May 1936 (in Heller 1984: 140).

3 Brian Klug, ‘The Other Arthur Balfour “PROTECTOR OF THE JEWS”’, 8

July 2013, http://www.balfourproject.org/the-other-arthur-balfour-protectorof- the-jews/ 4 Cited by Ami Isseroff, ‘British Support for Jewish Restoration’, http://www.

mideastweb.org/britzion.htm; Masalha (1992, 1997, 2003).

5 J. N. Darby, Letters of J. N. Darby, Vol. 2 (London: G. Morrish, n.d.).

6 Numbers 32:1; Genesis 31:25; Genesis 37:25.

7 Cited by Ami Isseroff, ‘British Support for Jewish Restoration’, http://www.

mideastweb.org/britzion.htm.

8 Ibid.

9 As early as 1821 the Anglican Church, through its Church Missionary Society and the London Jews Society (more properly, the Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews, founded in 1808 to convert the Jews to Christianity), was considering the establishment of a post. The London Jews Society established the first permanent Anglican mission station in Jerusalem in 1833, two years after the crisis caused by the capture of the city by Muhammad ‘Ali. In 1841, a Protestant bishopric in Jerusalem was established under joint British and Prussian auspices.

10 Russian interest in the Holy Land increased particularly after the Crimean War, as Russia availed itself of the opportunity of furthering Russian political concerns through protection of Orthodox interests in the Ottoman Empire.

This was witnessed as early 1860 with the commencement of the building of a Russian cathedral and of a vast complex of hostels, offices and hospitals for the care for Russian pilgrims to Jerusalem.

11 German influence was reflected in the German Evangelical Church’s administration of the hospital of the German deaconesses, the Syrian Protestant Orphanage, the Leper Hospital in the German colony, and the Lutheran Church of the Redeemer.

12 Not to be outdone, the Church of Scotland mission was established, which, in addition to St Andrew’s in Jerusalem, provided medical and educational services in several centres in Palestine.

13 This famous poem was written by Kipling in 1899.

14 Cited by Isseroff, ‘British Support for Jewish Restoration’.

15 Here Said uses Carl Marx’s adage: ‘they cannot represent themselves; they must be represented’ in an epigraph to Orientalism.

16 http://web.nli.org.il/sites/JPress/English/Pages/Palestine-Post.aspx 17 Reported in Haaretz, 4 April 1969.

18 Wadi al-Hawarith was also the name of a Palestinian village depopulated in 1948.

19 Rabbinic sages whose views were recorded in the Mishnah.

20 Jewish Oral Torah scholars.

21 For further discussion of the invention of the Jewish people, see Masalha (2007)

and Sand (2009).

22 Other key reasons behind the influence of Arabic on modern Hebrew include: (1)

until the establishment of Israel in 1948 Arabic was spoken by the overwhelming majority of people in Palestine; (2) during the early stages of its revival Hebrew urgently needed new Semitic words and patterns and had to rely on a living Semitic language such as Arabic which the newly invented modern Hebrew found as a readily available rich resource to exploit; (3) Arabic is closest to Hebrew amongst the Semitic languages (Shehadeh 1998: 62; Chomsky 1967: 217).

23 Much of Israeli research has focused on the abundance of Arabic adjectives in Israeli Hebrew slang and on the significant impact of Arabic on the ‘non-official’, non-standard, colloquial Hebrew (Blanc 1954; Shehadeh 1998).

24 However, some words did not catch on. For instance, Ben-Yehuda’s word for ‘tomato’ was badora, the Hebrew version of the Palestinian colloquial Arabic bandora; Ben-Yehuda failed to win this logistic battle and today Israeli Hebrew speakers use the word ‘agvania (Balint 2008) – from the Hebrew root ‘agav which means ‘to love, to desire’. This also reflects the European (and vulgar)

‘love apple’ (Italian: pomo d’oro; French: pommes d’amour) for the Aztec fruit which was first brought to Italy from South America in the 16th century and to which the Europeans attributed aphrodisiac powers.

25 Avishai Margalit, ‘The Myth of Jerusalem’, The New York Review of Books 38(21), 19 December 1991.

26 Uri Davis, ‘The Histadrut: Continuity and Change’, paper submitted to the International Department, Norwegian Trade Union Federation, January 1999.

27 Shamir means flint. The Talmud contains the myth of King Solomon using Shamir in the construction of the first temple in the place of cutting tools.

28 Don C. Benjamin, ‘Stories and Stones: Archaeology and the Bible, an introduction with CD Rom’, 2006, http://www.doncbenjamin.com/pav/docs/ archaeology_and_the_bible.pdf, note 78, p. 254.

29 Approximately one-quarter of all geographical names were derived from the Arabic names on the basis of the similarity of sounds.

30 Founded in 1890, the new Zionist settlement/city of Rehovot was named after a biblical town of a similar name, Rehoboth, which stood at a completely different location in the Negev Desert.

31 Oren Yiftachel’s Introduction to Noga Kadman’s Erased From Space and Consciousness (2008), p. 8, cited in Manar Makhoul, ‘Un-erasing the Nakba:

Palestinian Identity in Israel since the First Intifada’, 13 March 2013, http:// mondoweiss.net/2013/03/palestinian-identity-intifada/.

32 Jonathan Cook, ‘Israel’s Plan to Wipe Arabic Names off the Map’, The Electronic Intifada, 17 July 2009, http://electronicintifada.net/content/israels-plan-wipearabic- names-map/8351

33 Ibid.