尽管上文所述的普遍衰败，在这一时期的各个阶段，仍不时涌现出一些杰出的学者。他们反对盲目效仿（Taqleed），勇于高举独立思考（Ijtihaad）的旗帜。他们呼吁回归宗教的根本，回归伊斯兰教法的真正源头，并且首先依靠这些根基。

In spite of the general decay described above, there existed from time to time throughout this period a few outstanding scholars who opposed Taqleed and dared to raise the banner of Ijtihaad. They called for a return to the roots of the religion, to the true sources of Islamic law and to reliance on these foundations above all else.

以下将介绍其中一些改革者及其贡献。

Some of these reformers and their contributions are described hereafter.

艾哈迈德·本·泰米耶（公元1263—1328年）并非这一时期最杰出的改革者之一。由于他挑战现状，他的许多同时代人宣称他为叛教者，并促使当局多次将他监禁。然而，伊本·泰米耶是他那个时代最伟大的学者之一。起初，他依照罕百里学派学习教法（Fiqh），但他并不局限于此。他深入研究伊斯兰法的渊源，并精通当时已知的所有伊斯兰学科。

Ahmad ibn Taymeeyah (1263-1328 CE) was not foremost among the reformers of this period. Because of his challenge of the status quo, many of his contemporaries declared him an apostate and had the authorities jail him repeatedly. Ibn Taymeeyah was, however, one of the greatest scholars of his time. Initially, he had studied Fiqh according to the Hambalee Madh-hab, but did not restrict himself to it. He studied the sources of Islamic law in depth and mastered all the Islamic sciences which were known at that time.

此外,他考察了那些脱离伊斯兰教的各种教派的著作,研读了基督徒、犹太人及其各个教派的宗教典籍,并就所有这些撰写了大量的批判著作。伊本·泰米叶还参加了抗击蒙古人的圣战,当时蒙古人已占领了前阿拔斯国家的东部和北部各省,并且正处于……

Furthermore, he examined the writings of various sects which had broken off from islaam, studied the religious books of the Christians, the Jews and their various sects and wrote extensive critiques on all of them. Ibn Taymeeyah also took part in the Jihaad against the Mongols who had occupied the eastern and northern provinces of the former ‘Abbaasid state and were at that were among the greatest Islamic scholars of their time and carried on to the next generation the banner of Ijtihaad and a return to the pure sources of Islaam which he had raised. Among them was Ibn Qayyim, a great scholar in the fields of Fiqh and Hadeeth criticism and Ibn Katheer, a master in Tafseer, History and Hadeeth.

穆罕默德·本·阿里·沙watkan尼 (1757-1835 CE) Correction to the above, using the correct transliteration of the name: 穆罕默德·本·阿里·沙瓦卡尼 (1757-1835 CE)

Muhammad ibn ‘Alee ash-Shawkaanee (1757-1835 CE)

出生于也门沙瓦坎镇附近的阿什-沙瓦卡尼，也是这一时期的改革者之一。阿什-沙瓦卡尼依照宰德派学说学习伊斯兰教法（Fiqh），并成为该学派的杰出学者之一。

born near the town of Shawkaan in Yemen, was also among the reformers to this Period. Ash-Shawkaanee studied Fiqh according to the Zaydee Madh-hab192 and became one of its outstanding scholars.

然后他深入研究了他那个时代的圣训。此时他摆脱了教法学派的束缚，开始独立进行伊智提哈德（独立思考推论）。他撰写了多部关于教法及其根本原理的著作，书中从所有教法学派的观点研究各种问题，并仅依据最可靠的证据和最有说服力的论据得出结论。伊玛目沙卡尼认为模仿（taqleed）是哈兰（禁止的），并就此主题写了多本书，例如《关于模仿之裁决的有益之言》（Al-Qawl al-Mufeed fee Hukm at-Taqleed）。因此，他也遭到了当时大多数学者的抨击。193

He then went into an in-depth study of the Hadeeth of his time. At this point he freed him self of the Madh-hab and began making independent Ijtihaad. He wrote a number of works in Fiqh and its fundamentals in which issues studied from the points of view of all the Madh-habs were concluded with solutions based solely on the most accurate proofs and the most convincing arguments. Imaam ash-Shawkaanee took the position that Taqleed was Haraam and wrote a number of books on the topic, for example, Al-Qawl alMufeed fee Hukm at-Taqleed. Consequently, he also came under attack from most of the scholars of his time.193

另一位值得注意的改革者是伟大的学者艾哈迈德·伊本·阿卜杜勒-拉希姆，人称沙阿·瓦利·安拉·德赫拉维（1703-1762年）。他出生于印度次大陆，那里的盲目taqleed（taqleed）可能最为盛行。在精通各门伊斯兰学科之后，他呼吁重新开启ijtihaad（Ijtihaad）之门，并使各个教法学派重新统一。在重新审视伊斯兰原则、探究各法学派立法依据何在的努力中，沙阿·瓦利·安拉使圣训的研究重新焕发生机。尽管他并未走到否定现有教法学派的地步，但他认为，只要一个人确信某一判决有圣训更为充分的证据支持，他便可以自由地选择不同于其所属学派所采取的判决。194

Another noteworthy reformer was the great schoar Ahmad ibn ‘Abdur-Raheem better known as Shah Walee Allaah Dihlawee (1703-1762 CE). He was born in the Indian sub-continent where Taqleed was, perhaps, most rampant. After he had mastered the various Islamic sciences, he called for the re-opening of the door of Ijtihaad and the re-unification of the schools of Fiqh. In this efforts to re-examine Islamic principles and to find out on what authority the legal schools based their regulations, Shah Walee Allaah rejuvenated the study of Hadeeth. Although he did not go so far as to reject the existing Fiqh schools, nevertheless he tought that everyone was free to choose a particular decision different from that taken by the school to which he belonged himself, if he was convinced that the case was better confirmed by Hadeeth.194

然而,尽管有贾马勒·丁·阿富汗尼(1839-1897年)等现代思想家四处奔走、呼吁改革,穆斯林世界整体的衰退与停滞却一直延续至今。阿富汗尼曾游历印度、麦加和君士坦丁堡,最终定居埃及。他主张政治、宗教和科学思想的自由,谴责taqleed(盲目效仿)和国家腐败。阿富汗尼在大学里传播这些思想。他的一些观点被认为过于极端。例如,他将人类的心智及其逻辑推理提升到与天启同等的地位。由于他参与了当时正在中东设立新分支的共济会运动,他的动机也受到了怀疑。195

However the over all state of degeneration and stagnation has continued until today, despite the efforts of modern thinkers like Jamaal ad-Deen al-Afghaanee (1839-1897 CE) who traveled throughout the Muslim world calling for reform. Jamaal ad-Deen traveled to India, Makkah, and Constantinople, settling finally in Egypt. He called for free political, religious and scientific thought and denounced Taqleed and state corruption. Jamaal ad-Deen thought these ideas at the University of Jamaal ad-Deen’s ideas were extremist. For example, he elevated the human mind and its logical deductions to a level equal to that of Divine Revelation. His intentions also became suspect due to his involvement with the Masonic movement which was at that time establishing new branches in the Middle-East.195

穆罕默德·阿卜杜勒（1849-1905 CE）是阿富汗尼最著名的学生之一。在阿富汗尼和伊本·穆罕默德·阿卜杜勒的影响下，taqleed（盲从）及其支持者遭到了系统性的攻击。然而，由于穆罕默德·阿卜杜勒倾向于极端的现代主义，他最终在一些经注和法律裁决上出现了偏离。例如，在他的《古兰经》注释中，他否认先知们所行的神迹是神通过自然力量直接施行的。在他看来，在阿布拉哈及其大象进攻天房（Ka'bah）时，向其军队投掷泥石子的那群飞鸟，不过是传播疾病的空气中的微生物。同样，他作出一项教法裁决，允许穆斯林参与涉及利息的商业交易。他以“紧急状况使禁止之事变为允许”这一教法原则作为依据。他的裁决之谬误在于：教法对紧急状况有明确的界定，即涉及生死或肢体丧失的情形，而商业交易显然不属于这种情况。 穆罕默德·阿卜杜勒的主要学生穆罕默德·拉希德·里达（卒于1935年）延续了其师对taqleed的抨击，但拒绝了其师的大部分过激之处。然而，穆罕默德·阿卜杜勒的其他学生成为了极端现代主义运动的核心，他们在许多方面的偏离比其师更为严重。例如，他的学生卡西姆·阿敏（卒于1908年）首先猛烈抨击一夫多妻制、伊斯兰离婚的简便性以及面纱的使用。

Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905 CE) was among Afghaanee’s most famous students. Under the influence of Afghaanee and Ibn Muhammad ‘Abduh, and Taqleed and its supporters were systematically attacked. But, due to Muhammad ‘Abduh’s leaning toward extreme modernism, he eventually deviated in some of his interpretations and legal rulings. For example, in his Tafseer of the Qur’aan he Prophets of directly performed by God through the forces of nature. To him the flocks of birds which dropped clay pebbles on the army of Abrahah and his elephant during their attack on the Ka’bah were simply airborne microbes which spread disease among them. Likewise, he made a Fatwaa allowing Muslims to be involved in business transactions involving interest. He based this ruling on the Fiqh principle that dire necessity makes the forbidden allowable. The fallacy of his ruling lay in the fact that Fiqh specifically defines dire necessity as involving matters of life and death or loss of limb, and this was simply not the case where business transactions are concerned. Muhammad ‘Abduh’s main student, Muhammad Rashed Ridaa (d. 1935), carried on his mentor’s attack on Taqleed, but rejected most of his teacher’s excesses. However, other students of Muhammad ‘Abduh became the nucleus of the extreme modernist movement and deviated in many areas even more than their teacher. For example, his student Qaasim Ameen (died 1908) was the first to make a vehement attack on polygamy, the simplicity of Islamic divorce and the use of the veil.

20世纪的其他学者，例如哈桑·班纳（Hassan alBannaa，卒于1949年），穆斯林兄弟会的创始人；赛义德·艾卜·阿阿拉·毛杜迪（Sayyid, Abul-A'laa Mawdudi，1903-1979），伊斯兰促进会运动的创始人；以及近代伟大的圣训学者纳赛尔丁·阿勒巴尼（Naasir ad-Deen al-Albaanee），都高举伊斯兰复兴的旗帜，呼吁统一各个教法学派。但直到今天，大多数学者仍然坚定地恪守四大教法学派之一，即宗派化的伊斯兰教。

Other scholars of the twentieth century, such as Hassan alBannaa (d.1949), founder of the Ikhwaan Muslimoon movement Sayyid, Abul-A’laa Mawdudi (1903-1979), founder of the Jama’at Islami movement, and more recently the great Hadeeth scholar of our era, Naasir ad-Deen al-Albaanee have picked up the banner of Islamic Revival and have called for the unfication of the Madhhabs.196 But, to this day, the majority of scholars remain firmly bound to sectarian Islaam in the form of one of the four Madh-habs.

在这样做的过程中,他们在不知不觉中延续了穆斯林民族内部的分裂。短期内,这一进程似乎也看不到终结的希望;因为除了极少数例外,当今穆斯林世界各地的伊斯兰教育机构都在积极宣扬一种宗派化的伊斯兰观。

In doing so, they unknowingly perpetuate division among the ranks of the Muslim nation. Nor does there appear to be much hope for an end to this process in the near future; for, with very few exceptions, present day Islamic institutions of learning throughout the Muslim world actively propagate a sectarian view of Islaam.

的确，比较伊斯兰教法学（Fiqh）如今在这些院校的课程体系中已占据突出位置，圣训学的研习也比一个世纪前更为普及。

It is true that comparative Fiqh is now being given a prominent place in the syllabuses of these institutions, and the study of Hadeeth has become more popular than it was only a century ago.

但事实是，这两个本可以充满活力、带来复兴的学科，却已被伊斯兰教育的宗派体制削弱了。每所大学都遵循其所在国的官方教法学派（Madh-hab），因此伊斯兰法课程体系中所有核心的教法（Fiqh）课程（称为Sharee'ah或Usool al-Deen）都依照国家的官方教法学派讲授。这样做是为了满足当地政府对法官的需求，即法官须遵从该国民法体系所采用的教法学派。例如，埃及的艾资哈尔大学是穆斯林世界最受尊崇的学府，也是唯一同时讲授所有主要教法学派的大学。然而，入学学生需要注明自己所属的教法学派，并被编入同一班级。从入学到毕业，他们的教授都将来自同一教法学派。因此，其他教法学派的观点仅被当作奇闻来研读，而伟大的圣训典籍更多是为了求得福泽而诵读，而非为了探求真理的启示。每当在学习过程中遇到相左的观点时，宗派体制中的教师只是浮浅地加以审视，然后依据他为支持本派立场而提出的有力论证予以驳斥。因此，即便其他观点有非常有力的证据支持，宗派教师的处理方式也使它们得不到应有的重视。同样，在阅读圣训典籍时，如果遇到一段与本派立场相悖的强有力圣训，教师要么重新诠释，使其支持本派，要么巧妙地加以回避。如果这两种方法都行不通，就会引用一系列弱圣训来支持本派的立场，却丝毫不提这些圣训是弱的。 这样看来，支持该教法学派立场的圣训似乎数量更多，因此学生们对自己所属教法学派的正确性深信不疑。

But, the reality is that these two potentially dynamic and regenerative subjects have been defused by the sectarian system of Islamic education. Each university adheres to the official Madh-hab of the country in which it is situated and thus all the core Fiqh courses of the Islamic law Syllabus (called Sharee’ah or Usool al-Deen) are taught according to the state Madh-hab197. This is done to fulfill the local government’s need for judges who conform to the Madh-hab used in the civil law system of the state. For example, the University of al-Azhar in Egypt, the most venerated institution in the Muslim world, is the only university in which all of the major Madh-habs are taught. However, students entering the university are required to indicate their Madh-hab are placed in the same class. From the beginning of their studies until they graduate, all of their professors will be from their own Madh-hab. Accordingly, the positions of the other Madh-habs are studied merely as oddities, and the great books of Hadeeth are read more for the blessing than for the revelation of truth. Whenever a conflicting opinion is encountered in the course of these studies, the teacher in the sectarian institution examines it superficially and rejects it in the light of the compelling arguments, which he develops to support the position of his particular Madhhab. Thus, although other positions may be supported by very strong proofs, the sectarian teacher’s treatment denies them the consideration they deserve. Similarly, if a strong Hadeeth which appears contrary to the position taken by the Madh-hab is met while reading the books of Hadeeth, the teacher either re-interprets it to support his Madh-hab or he deftly explains it away. And if neither of the two is possible, a series of weak Hadeeths are quoted in support of the Madh-hab’s position without the slightest mention that they are weak. In that way, it appears that there is a greater number of Hadeeths supporting the Madh-hab’s position, and the students are convinced of the correctness of their Madh-hab.

1. 所有形式的伊智提哈德（Ijtihaad）都被搁置，盲目遵从（Taqleed）四大教法学派之一被强制要求所有穆斯林遵守。

1. Ijtihaad in all its forms was put aside, and the blind following (Taqleed) of one of the four Madh-habs was made compulsory on all Muslims.

2. 四大教法学派彼此完全不相容，穆斯林乌玛实际上被分裂为四个宗教派别。

2. The four Madh-habs became totally incompatible and the Muslim Ummah was virtually split into four religeous sects.

3. 学术活动仅限于为前人著作撰写注释，并宣扬作者所属学派的立场，正如在巩固时期那样。

3. Scholarly activity was restricted to writing commentaries on previous works and promoting the position of the author’s particular Madh-hab as in the period of consolidation.

4. 一些改革者曾作出值得称赞的努力，试图恢复伊斯兰教法（Fiqh）原本的生机与活力，但他们的努力未能根除早已根深蒂固的教派（Madh-hab）狂热，力不从心。

4. There were commendable attepts by certain reformers to revive the original and dynamic nature of Fiqh, but their efforts proved unequal to the task of eradicating Madh-hab fanaticism which had became so deeply ingrained.

5. 曾有人尝试对伊斯兰法进行编纂，但其成果受到宗派观点的局限；随着欧洲殖民主义的到来，这些尝试被欧洲的法典所取代。

5. Attempts at the codification of Islamic law were made, but the results suffered from sectarian views, and with the advent of European colonialism they were supplanted by European law codes.

6. 近年来，由于改革运动以及现代教育机构中比较教法学（Fiqh）的广泛讲授，对教派（Madh-hab）的狂热已有所减弱。

6. There has been some lessening of Madh-hab fanaticism in recent years as a result of the reformist movements and the wide-spread teaching of comparative Fiqh in modern institutions of learning.

7. 伊斯兰教法学（Fiqh）停滞衰落的状态以及教派门户之争的局面，一直延续至今。

7. The state of stagnation and decline of Fiqh and the existence of Madh-hab factionalism have continued until the present day.