Walaupun berlaku kemerosotan secara umum sebagaimana yang telah diterangkan di atas, terdapat dari semasa ke semasa sepanjang tempoh ini beberapa orang ulama yang cemerlang yang menentang Taqlid dan berani mengibarkan panji Ijtihad. Mereka menyeru agar kembali kepada akar-umbi agama, kepada sumber-sumber sebenar hukum Islam, dan agar berpegang kepada asas-asas tersebut di atas segala-galanya.

In spite of the general decay described above, there existed from time to time throughout this period a few outstanding scholars who opposed Taqleed and dared to raise the banner of Ijtihaad. They called for a return to the roots of the religion, to the true sources of Islamic law and to reliance on these foundations above all else.

Sebahagian daripada tokoh-tokoh pembaharu ini dan sumbangan mereka diterangkan selepas ini.

Some of these reformers and their contributions are described hereafter.

Ahmad ibn Taymeeyah (1263-1328 M) bukanlah antara tokoh pembaharu yang utama pada zaman ini. Disebabkan cabarannya terhadap keadaan yang sedia ada, ramai rakan sezamannya mengisytiharkannya sebagai murtad dan pihak berkuasa memenjarakannya berulang kali. Namun, Ibn Taymeeyah merupakan salah seorang ulama terbesar pada zamannya. Pada mulanya, beliau mempelajari Fiqh menurut Mazhab Hambali, tetapi beliau tidak membataskan dirinya kepadanya. Beliau mempelajari sumber-sumber hukum Islam secara mendalam dan menguasai segala ilmu Islam yang dikenali pada masa itu.

Ahmad ibn Taymeeyah (1263-1328 CE) was not foremost among the reformers of this period. Because of his challenge of the status quo, many of his contemporaries declared him an apostate and had the authorities jail him repeatedly. Ibn Taymeeyah was, however, one of the greatest scholars of his time. Initially, he had studied Fiqh according to the Hambalee Madh-hab, but did not restrict himself to it. He studied the sources of Islamic law in depth and mastered all the Islamic sciences which were known at that time.

Selain itu, beliau meneliti tulisan-tulisan pelbagai aliran yang telah memisahkan diri daripada Islam, mempelajari kitab-kitab agama orang Kristian, orang Yahudi dan pelbagai aliran mereka, serta menulis kritikan yang panjang lebar terhadap kesemuanya. Ibn Taymiyyah juga turut serta dalam jihad menentang bangsa Monggol yang telah menduduki wilayah-wilayah timur dan utara bekas negara ‘Abbasiyyah, dan pada ketika itu mereka... Ibn Taymiyyah adalah antara ulama Islam yang terbesar pada zamannya. Beliau meneruskan kepada generasi berikutnya panji ijtihad dan kembali kepada sumber-sumber Islam yang murni, yang telah beliau junjung. Antara mereka ialah Ibn Qayyim, seorang ulama besar dalam bidang Fiqh dan kritikan Hadis, dan Ibn Katsir, seorang pakar dalam Tafsir, Sejarah dan Hadis.

Furthermore, he examined the writings of various sects which had broken off from islaam, studied the religious books of the Christians, the Jews and their various sects and wrote extensive critiques on all of them. Ibn Taymeeyah also took part in the Jihaad against the Mongols who had occupied the eastern and northern provinces of the former ‘Abbaasid state and were at that were among the greatest Islamic scholars of their time and carried on to the next generation the banner of Ijtihaad and a return to the pure sources of Islaam which he had raised. Among them was Ibn Qayyim, a great scholar in the fields of Fiqh and Hadeeth criticism and Ibn Katheer, a master in Tafseer, History and Hadeeth.

Muhammad ibn ‘Alee ash-Shawkaanee (1757-1835 M)

Muhammad ibn ‘Alee ash-Shawkaanee (1757-1835 CE)

dilahirkan berhampiran bandar Shawkaan di Yaman, juga termasuk dalam kalangan tokoh pembaharu pada zaman ini. Asy-Shawkaanee mempelajari fiqh menurut mazhab Zaydi (Madh-hab) 192 dan menjadi salah seorang ulamanya yang terkemuka.

born near the town of Shawkaan in Yemen, was also among the reformers to this Period. Ash-Shawkaanee studied Fiqh according to the Zaydee Madh-hab192 and became one of its outstanding scholars.

Kemudian beliau mendalami kajian hadis pada zamannya secara mendalam. Pada tahap ini beliau membebaskan dirinya daripada mazhab dan mula berijtihad secara bebas. Beliau menulis sejumlah karya dalam fiqh dan asas-asasnya, di mana isu-isu yang dikaji dari sudut pandangan semua mazhab dirumuskan dengan penyelesaian yang berdasarkan semata-mata dalil yang paling sahih dan hujah yang paling meyakinkan. Imam asy-Syawkani berpendirian bahawa taqlid adalah haram, dan beliau menulis sejumlah kitab mengenainya, contohnya Al-Qawl al-Mufeed fee Hukm at-Taqleed. Akibatnya, beliau turut diserang oleh kebanyakan ulama pada zamannya.193

He then went into an in-depth study of the Hadeeth of his time. At this point he freed him self of the Madh-hab and began making independent Ijtihaad. He wrote a number of works in Fiqh and its fundamentals in which issues studied from the points of view of all the Madh-habs were concluded with solutions based solely on the most accurate proofs and the most convincing arguments. Imaam ash-Shawkaanee took the position that Taqleed was Haraam and wrote a number of books on the topic, for example, Al-Qawl alMufeed fee Hukm at-Taqleed. Consequently, he also came under attack from most of the scholars of his time.193

Pembaharu penting lain ialah ulama besar Ahmad ibn ‘Abdur-Raheem yang lebih dikenali sebagai Shah Walee Allaah Dihlawee (1703-1762 M). Beliau dilahirkan di benua kecil India, tempat taqlid mungkin paling berleluasa. Setelah menguasai pelbagai ilmu Islam, beliau menyeru supaya pintu ijtihad dibuka semula dan mazhab-mazhab fikah disatukan kembali. Dalam usaha beliau untuk meneliti semula prinsip-prinsip Islam dan mengenal pasti atas dasar kuasa apakah mazhab-mazhab perundangan membuat peraturan mereka, Shah Walee Allaah menghidupkan semula kajian hadis. Walaupun beliau tidak sampai menolak mazhab-mazhab fikah yang sedia ada, beliau tetap berpendapat bahawa setiap orang bebas memilih keputusan tertentu yang berbeza daripada yang diambil oleh mazhab yang beliau sendiri anuti, sekiranya beliau yakin bahawa sesuatu perkara itu lebih kukuh disahkan oleh hadis.194

Another noteworthy reformer was the great schoar Ahmad ibn ‘Abdur-Raheem better known as Shah Walee Allaah Dihlawee (1703-1762 CE). He was born in the Indian sub-continent where Taqleed was, perhaps, most rampant. After he had mastered the various Islamic sciences, he called for the re-opening of the door of Ijtihaad and the re-unification of the schools of Fiqh. In this efforts to re-examine Islamic principles and to find out on what authority the legal schools based their regulations, Shah Walee Allaah rejuvenated the study of Hadeeth. Although he did not go so far as to reject the existing Fiqh schools, nevertheless he tought that everyone was free to choose a particular decision different from that taken by the school to which he belonged himself, if he was convinced that the case was better confirmed by Hadeeth.194

Namun, keadaan kemerosotan dan kejumudan secara keseluruhan terus berlanjut sehingga hari ini, walaupun terdapat usaha pemikir moden seperti Jamaal ad-Deen al-Afghaanee (1839-1897 M) yang mengembara ke seluruh dunia Islam menyeru kepada pembaharuan. Jamaal ad-Deen mengembara ke India, Makkah dan Constantinople, akhirnya menetap di Mesir. Beliau menyeru kepada kebebasan pemikiran politik, agama dan saintifik, serta mencela taqlid dan rasuah negara. Pemikiran-pemikiran Jamaal ad-Deen ini ... di Universiti Jamaal ad-Deen dianggap ekstremis. Sebagai contoh, beliau mengangkat akal manusia dan kesimpulan logiknya ke tahap yang setara dengan Wahyu Ilahi. Niatnya juga menjadi tidak dipercayai kerana penglibatannya dengan gerakan Freemason yang ketika itu sedang menubuhkan cawangan-cawangan baharu di Timur Tengah.195

However the over all state of degeneration and stagnation has continued until today, despite the efforts of modern thinkers like Jamaal ad-Deen al-Afghaanee (1839-1897 CE) who traveled throughout the Muslim world calling for reform. Jamaal ad-Deen traveled to India, Makkah, and Constantinople, settling finally in Egypt. He called for free political, religious and scientific thought and denounced Taqleed and state corruption. Jamaal ad-Deen thought these ideas at the University of Jamaal ad-Deen’s ideas were extremist. For example, he elevated the human mind and its logical deductions to a level equal to that of Divine Revelation. His intentions also became suspect due to his involvement with the Masonic movement which was at that time establishing new branches in the Middle-East.195

Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905 M) adalah salah seorang murid Afghaanee yang paling terkenal. Di bawah pengaruh Afghaanee dan Ibn Muhammad ‘Abduh, Taqleed serta para pendukungnya diserang secara sistematik. Namun, kerana kecenderungan Muhammad ‘Abduh kepada modernisme yang melampau, beliau akhirnya tersasar dalam sebahagian tafsiran dan hukum fiqhnya. Sebagai contoh, dalam Tafseer beliau terhadap al-Qur’aan, beliau menafikan bahawa mukjizat para Nabi dilakukan secara langsung oleh God melalui kuasa alam semula jadi. Baginya, kawanan burung yang menjatuhkan batu-batu tanah liat ke atas tentera Abrahah dan gajahnya ketika mereka menyerang Ka’bah hanyalah mikrob yang terbawa udara, yang menyebarkan penyakit di kalangan mereka. Begitu juga, beliau mengeluarkan Fatwaa yang membenarkan umat Islam terlibat dalam urus niaga yang melibatkan riba. Beliau mendasarkan keputusan ini pada kaedah Fiqh bahawa keadaan darurat yang amat sangat menjadikan yang haram itu harus. Kesilapan fatwa beliau terletak pada hakikat bahawa Fiqh secara khusus mentakrifkan keadaan darurat yang amat sangat sebagai melibatkan perkara hidup dan mati atau kehilangan anggota badan, dan perkara ini sama sekali tidak berlaku dalam urus niaga. Murid utama Muhammad ‘Abduh, Muhammad Rashed Ridaa (m. 1935), meneruskan serangan gurunya terhadap Taqleed, tetapi menolak kebanyakan keterlaluan gurunya. Walau bagaimanapun, murid-murid Muhammad ‘Abduh yang lain menjadi teras gerakan modernis yang melampau, dan mereka tersasar dalam banyak bidang lebih jauh daripada guru mereka. Sebagai contoh, muridnya Qaasim Ameen (meninggal 1908) adalah orang pertama yang menyerang poligami, kemudahan talak dalam Islam dan pemakaian tudung dengan begitu keras.

Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905 CE) was among Afghaanee’s most famous students. Under the influence of Afghaanee and Ibn Muhammad ‘Abduh, and Taqleed and its supporters were systematically attacked. But, due to Muhammad ‘Abduh’s leaning toward extreme modernism, he eventually deviated in some of his interpretations and legal rulings. For example, in his Tafseer of the Qur’aan he Prophets of directly performed by God through the forces of nature. To him the flocks of birds which dropped clay pebbles on the army of Abrahah and his elephant during their attack on the Ka’bah were simply airborne microbes which spread disease among them. Likewise, he made a Fatwaa allowing Muslims to be involved in business transactions involving interest. He based this ruling on the Fiqh principle that dire necessity makes the forbidden allowable. The fallacy of his ruling lay in the fact that Fiqh specifically defines dire necessity as involving matters of life and death or loss of limb, and this was simply not the case where business transactions are concerned. Muhammad ‘Abduh’s main student, Muhammad Rashed Ridaa (d. 1935), carried on his mentor’s attack on Taqleed, but rejected most of his teacher’s excesses. However, other students of Muhammad ‘Abduh became the nucleus of the extreme modernist movement and deviated in many areas even more than their teacher. For example, his student Qaasim Ameen (died 1908) was the first to make a vehement attack on polygamy, the simplicity of Islamic divorce and the use of the veil.

Para ulama abad kedua puluh yang lain, seperti Hassan al-Bannaa (w. 1949), pengasas gerakan Ikhwaan Muslimoon, Sayyid, Abul-A'laa Mawdudi (1903-1979), pengasas gerakan Jama'at Islami, dan yang lebih baru, ulama hadis agung zaman kita, Naasir ad-Deen al-Albaanee, telah memikul panji Kebangkitan Islam dan menyeru kepada penyatuan Madhhab-madhhab.196 Namun, sehingga hari ini, majoriti ulama masih terikat teguh dengan Islam bermazhab dalam bentuk salah satu daripada empat Madh-hab.

Other scholars of the twentieth century, such as Hassan alBannaa (d.1949), founder of the Ikhwaan Muslimoon movement Sayyid, Abul-A’laa Mawdudi (1903-1979), founder of the Jama’at Islami movement, and more recently the great Hadeeth scholar of our era, Naasir ad-Deen al-Albaanee have picked up the banner of Islamic Revival and have called for the unfication of the Madhhabs.196 But, to this day, the majority of scholars remain firmly bound to sectarian Islaam in the form of one of the four Madh-habs.

Dengan berbuat demikian, mereka tanpa disedari turut meneruskan perpecahan di kalangan umat Islam. Tidak juga kelihatan banyak harapan bahawa proses ini akan berakhir dalam waktu terdekat; kerana, dengan pengecualian yang sangat sedikit, institusi-institusi pengajian Islam pada masa kini di seluruh dunia Islam secara aktif menyebarkan pandangan mazhab terhadap Islam.

In doing so, they unknowingly perpetuate division among the ranks of the Muslim nation. Nor does there appear to be much hope for an end to this process in the near future; for, with very few exceptions, present day Islamic institutions of learning throughout the Muslim world actively propagate a sectarian view of Islaam.

Memang benar bahawa fiqh perbandingan kini diberi tempat yang menonjol dalam silibus institusi-institusi ini, dan pengajian hadis telah menjadi lebih popular berbanding seabad yang lalu.

It is true that comparative Fiqh is now being given a prominent place in the syllabuses of these institutions, and the study of Hadeeth has become more popular than it was only a century ago.

Tetapi, hakikatnya kedua-dua subjek yang berpotensi dinamik dan memperbaharui ini telah dilemahkan oleh sistem pendidikan Islam yang bersifat mazhab. Setiap universiti berpegang kepada mazhab rasmi negara tempat ia berada, dan dengan itu semua kursus Fiqh teras dalam silibus undang-undang Islam (yang dipanggil Sharee'ah atau Usool al-Deen) diajar mengikut mazhab negara. Ini dilakukan bagi memenuhi keperluan kerajaan tempatan terhadap hakim yang akur kepada mazhab yang digunakan dalam sistem undang-undang sivil negara tersebut. Sebagai contoh, Universiti al-Azhar di Mesir, institusi yang paling dihormati di dunia Islam, adalah satu-satunya universiti yang mengajarkan semua mazhab utama. Namun, pelajar yang memasuki universiti tersebut dikehendaki menyatakan mazhab mereka dan ditempatkan dalam kelas yang sama. Dari permulaan pengajian sehingga bergraduasi, semua pensyarah mereka akan berasal daripada mazhab mereka sendiri. Justeru, pendirian mazhab-mazhab lain hanya dipelajari sebagai sesuatu yang luar biasa, dan kitab-kitab besar Hadith dibaca lebih untuk mendapatkan keberkatan daripada untuk menyingkap kebenaran wahyu. Apabila pandangan yang bercanggah ditemui dalam pengajian ini, pensyarah di institusi yang bersifat mazhab itu memeriksanya secara dangkal dan menolaknya dengan hujah-hujah kukuh yang dibangunkannya untuk menyokong pendirian mazhabnya sendiri. Maka, walaupun pendirian lain mungkin disokong oleh dalil-dalil yang sangat kuat, layanan pensyarah yang bermazhab itu menafikan kepadanya pertimbangan yang sepatutnya diterima. Begitu juga, apabila sebuah Hadith yang kuat yang kelihatan bertentangan dengan pendirian mazhab ditemui ketika membaca kitab-kitab Hadith, pensyarah sama ada mentafsirkannya semula untuk menyokong mazhabnya atau menjelaskannya dengan cara yang licik. Dan jika kedua-duanya tidak mungkin, satu siri Hadith yang lemah dikemukakan untuk menyokong pendirian mazhab tanpa sedikit pun disebutkan bahawa ia lemah. Dengan cara ini, nampaknya terdapat lebih banyak hadis yang menyokong pendirian mazhab tersebut, dan para penuntut yakin akan kebenaran mazhab mereka.

But, the reality is that these two potentially dynamic and regenerative subjects have been defused by the sectarian system of Islamic education. Each university adheres to the official Madh-hab of the country in which it is situated and thus all the core Fiqh courses of the Islamic law Syllabus (called Sharee’ah or Usool al-Deen) are taught according to the state Madh-hab197. This is done to fulfill the local government’s need for judges who conform to the Madh-hab used in the civil law system of the state. For example, the University of al-Azhar in Egypt, the most venerated institution in the Muslim world, is the only university in which all of the major Madh-habs are taught. However, students entering the university are required to indicate their Madh-hab are placed in the same class. From the beginning of their studies until they graduate, all of their professors will be from their own Madh-hab. Accordingly, the positions of the other Madh-habs are studied merely as oddities, and the great books of Hadeeth are read more for the blessing than for the revelation of truth. Whenever a conflicting opinion is encountered in the course of these studies, the teacher in the sectarian institution examines it superficially and rejects it in the light of the compelling arguments, which he develops to support the position of his particular Madhhab. Thus, although other positions may be supported by very strong proofs, the sectarian teacher’s treatment denies them the consideration they deserve. Similarly, if a strong Hadeeth which appears contrary to the position taken by the Madh-hab is met while reading the books of Hadeeth, the teacher either re-interprets it to support his Madh-hab or he deftly explains it away. And if neither of the two is possible, a series of weak Hadeeths are quoted in support of the Madh-hab’s position without the slightest mention that they are weak. In that way, it appears that there is a greater number of Hadeeths supporting the Madh-hab’s position, and the students are convinced of the correctness of their Madh-hab.

1. Ijtihad dalam segala bentuknya telah diketepikan, dan taqlid buta kepada salah satu daripada empat mazhab telah diwajibkan ke atas semua umat Islam.

1. Ijtihaad in all its forms was put aside, and the blind following (Taqleed) of one of the four Madh-habs was made compulsory on all Muslims.

Empat mazhab itu menjadi benar-benar tidak serasi, dan umat Islam hampir terpecah menjadi empat golongan agama.

2. The four Madh-habs became totally incompatible and the Muslim Ummah was virtually split into four religeous sects.

3. Aktiviti keilmuan terhad kepada penulisan syarah ke atas karya-karya terdahulu dan mempromosikan kedudukan mazhab tertentu pengarang, sebagaimana pada zaman pengukuhan.

3. Scholarly activity was restricted to writing commentaries on previous works and promoting the position of the author’s particular Madh-hab as in the period of consolidation.

4. Terdapat usaha-usaha terpuji oleh sebahagian pembaharu untuk menghidupkan semula sifat asal dan dinamik Fiqh, tetapi usaha mereka tidak mampu menghapuskan fanatisme mazhab yang telah begitu mendalam berakar umbi.

4. There were commendable attepts by certain reformers to revive the original and dynamic nature of Fiqh, but their efforts proved unequal to the task of eradicating Madh-hab fanaticism which had became so deeply ingrained.

5. Percubaan untuk mengkodifikasikan undang-undang Islam telah dibuat, tetapi hasilnya terjejas oleh pandangan mazhab, dan dengan kedatangan penjajahan Eropah, ia telah digantikan oleh kod undang-undang Eropah.

5. Attempts at the codification of Islamic law were made, but the results suffered from sectarian views, and with the advent of European colonialism they were supplanted by European law codes.

6. Dalam beberapa tahun kebelakangan ini, fanatisme mazhab telah berkurangan sedikit, hasil daripada gerakan-gerakan reformasi dan pengajaran meluas fiqh perbandingan di institusi-institusi pengajian moden.

6. There has been some lessening of Madh-hab fanaticism in recent years as a result of the reformist movements and the wide-spread teaching of comparative Fiqh in modern institutions of learning.

7. Keadaan kemandekan dan kemerosotan Fiqh serta wujudnya perpecahan mazhab telah berterusan hingga ke hari ini.

7. The state of stagnation and decline of Fiqh and the existence of Madh-hab factionalism have continued until the present day.