Kusoma na kuandika kwa wingi nchini Palestina, kama ilivyo katika nchi zote, ni jambo la kisasa.

Mass literacy in Palestine, as in all countries, is a modern phenomenon.

Hata hivyo, tukiangalia vituo vya elimu vilivyostawi vya Palestina katika karne ya 5 na 6 BK, tunapata hisia kali ya utambulisho wa nchi hiyo, uchumi wake hai, elimu na kujua kusoma na kuandika kulikoenea kiasi, pamoja na ujasiri wake wa jumla wa kuwa wazi kwa tamaduni nyingi. Mojawapo ya vituo muhimu zaidi vya elimu nchini humo katika kipindi hiki kilikuwa mji wa Gaza, ambao unajitokeza kama kitovu cha fasihi ya kale na balagha, ukiwa na wasomi kadhaa mashuhuri waliokuwa wakiishi na kufanya kazi huko, kituo cha mijini cha Kikristo chenye uhai na utamaduni wa eneo lote la Bahari ya Mediterania.

However, looking at the thriving learning centres of Palestine in the 5th and 6th centuries AD, one gets a strong sense of the country’s sense of self-identity, its vibrant economy, its relatively widespread education and literacy and its overall confident cosmopolitanism. One of the most important centres of learning in the country during this period was the city of Gaza, which emerges as a seat of classical literature and rhetoric, with a number of famous scholars living and working there, a vibrant and cultured Christian urban centre of the whole Mediterranean region.

Katika kipindi hiki chote miji ya bandari ya Gaza na Kaisarea-Palaestina, iliyounganishwa kwa usafiri wa baharini na barabara kuu ya Via Maris, ilishindana na pia kushirikiana, ikiwa miji miwili ya kimataifa zaidi nchini, na miji yote miwili ilikuwa na jamii kubwa za Waarabu. Pia ni jambo muhimu kwamba mwaka 451 BK, katika Baraza la Kiekumene la Chalcedon, lenye umuhimu mkubwa, mji wa Gaza uliwakilishwa na askofu Mwarabu (Shahid 2006a: 523). Katika miaka ya 530 BK, Aratius, Dux wa Palaestina Prima, na Archon Stephanus, procônsul wa Palaestina Prima, walisifiwa katika encomium20

Throughout this period the harbour cities of Gaza and Caesarea- Palaestina, linked by sea transport and the highway of the Via Maris, competed and worked together as the two most cosmopolitan urban centres in the country, and both cities had sizeable Arab communities. Also significant is the fact that in 451 AD, at the crucial ecumenical Council of Chalcedon, the city of Gaza was represented by an Arab bishop (Shahid 2006a: 523). In the 530s AD Aratius, Dux of Palaestina Prima, and Archon Stephanus, proconsul of Palaestina Prima are praised in the encomium20

Ilitungwa na mzalendo mwenzake wa Provincia Palaestina, Choricius wa Gaza, mwanafalsafa na mwanaretoriki (alifariki mwaka 518 BK), kwa ajili ya kudumisha sheria na utulivu na kuboresha mfumo wa usambazaji wa maji wa Caesarea Maritima kwa kazi za matengenezo, kuondoa vizuizi katika mifereji ya maji ya juu (Patrich 2011: 109; pia 2001; Prummer 2002: 246). Encomium pia inataja vipengele kadhaa tofauti vya retoriki ambavyo Shule ya Retoriki ya Gaza ya kale ilipata umaarufu mkubwa katika Enzi ya Marehemu ya Kale.

written by a fellow compatriot of Provincia Palaestina, Choricius of Gaza, a philosopher and rhetorician (died in 518 AD), for maintaining law and order and improving the water supply system of Caesarea Maritima by maintenance work, clearing obstructions from the high-level aqueducts (Patrich 2011: 109; also 2001; Prummer 2002: 246). Encomium also refers to several distinct aspects of rhetoric for which the classical Gaza School of Rhetoric became very famous in Late Antiquity.

Ilianzishwa zaidi ya miaka 5000 iliyopita, Gaza ni mojawapo ya miji ya kale kabisa duniani. Ikiwa imewekwa kimkakati kati ya Misri na Asia, katikati ya njia ya kale ya Via Maris, na kwenye ufukwe wa bahari, Gaza haijawahi kuacha kuutazama Bahari ya Mediterania. Gaza pia ilikuwa bandari ya kale sana na njia ya karibu zaidi ya kutoka Arabia. Ilitumia Petra kama eneo lake la nyuma, na Wagiriki wa kale walijua kwamba ilikuwa kupitia Gaza ndipo wangeweza kufika India (Humbert 2000).

Established more than 5000 years ago, Gaza is one of the oldest cities in the world. Located strategically between Egypt and Asia, at the centre of the ancient road of the Via Maris, and on a beachfront, Gaza has never stopped looking at the Mediterranean Sea. Gaza was also a very ancient port and the closest outlet for Arabia. It treated Petra as its hinterland and the ancient Greeks knew that it was through Gaza they could reach India (Humbert 2000).

Katika karne ya 12 KK, Wafilisti waliifanya Gaza kuwa mji mkuu wa Pentapolis ya Filistia. Kama tulivyoona hapo juu, Gaza daima ilitambulika kama miongoni mwa miji mikuu ya Filistia na kwa Wafilisti wa kale. Ikitajwa katika barua za Amarna kama 'Azzati', Gaza ilitumika kama kitovu cha utawala wa Misri ya kale huko Palestina. Katika karne ya 5 na ya 4 KK, miji ya Filistia iliendeleza uhusiano wake wa kibiashara wa kimataifa na kutengeneza sarafu zake za kipekee za Philisto-Arabian; mji huo uliendelea kustawi chini ya Warumi, na katika karne ya 2 BK sarafu za shaba za kifalme za Kirumi zilitengenezwa Gaza. Katika kipindi kirefu mara mbili cha Palestina chini ya Warumi na Wabyzantine, Gaza ilipanuka, na bandari yake ya Mediterania yenye mahali pa kimkakati iliendelea kustawi. Mwaka 635 BK, Gaza ikawa miongoni mwa miji ya kwanza ya Palestina kushindwa na jeshi la Waarabu Waislamu, na haraka ikageuka kuwa kituo kikuu cha elimu ya fiqhi ya Kiislamu. Leo mji wa Gaza, wenye wakazi zaidi ya 500,000, ndio mji mkubwa zaidi wa Kiarabu huko Palestina; wakazi wengi wa Gaza ni Waislamu, lakini pia kuna wachache wa Kiarabu wa Kikristo.

In the 12th century BC the Philistines made Gaza the leading city of the Pentapolis of Philistia. As we have seen above, Gaza was always identified with the key cities of Philistia and with the ancient Philistines. Mentioned in the Amarna letters as ‘Azzati’, Gaza served as ancient Egypt’s administrative capital in Palestine. In the 5th and 4th centuries BC the cities of Philistia maintained their international trading links and developed their distinct Philisto-Arabian coins; the city continued to flourish under the Romans and in the 2nd century AD imperial Roman bronze coins were struck in Gaza. In the course of the two long periods of Palestine under the Romans and Byzantines, Gaza expanded and its strategically located Mediterranean port continued to prosper. In 635 AD, Gaza became one of the first cities in Palestine to be conquered by the Arab Muslim army and it quickly developed into a major centre of Islamic jurisprudence. Today the city of Gaza, with a population of over 500,000, is the largest Arab city in Palestine; the majority of Gaza’s inhabitants are Muslims, but there is also a Christian Arab minority.

Chini ya Wabyzantini, jamii ya Palestina ya Mwisho wa Zama za Kale kwa ujumla ilikuwa jamii yenye elimu. Elimu ya msingi ilipatikana sana, wakati mwingine hata katika ngazi ya kijiji, hasa kwa wanaume. Elimu ilikuzwa si tu katika mji mkuu wa kifalme Constantinople, bali pia katika shule zilizofanya kazi katika vituo vikubwa kama Antiokia, Alexandria, Kaisaria Maritima na Gaza.

Under the Byzantines, Palestinian society of Late Antiquity was, on the whole, an educated one. Basic education was widely available, sometimes at village level, especially for men. Education was fostered not only in the imperial capital Constantinople but also in schools operating in major centres such as Antioch, Alexandria, Caesarea Maritima and Gaza.

Vipengele vikuu vya elimu vilikuwa balagha, falsafa, sheria na lugha (Kigiriki na Kilatini) kwa lengo la kuwazalisha viongozi na maafisa walioelimika kwa ajili ya dola na kanisa. Hata hivyo, ushiriki wa wanawake katika jamii ya kidume haukuhimizwa katika 'Athene ya Mediterania' mpya.

The main components of education were rhetoric, philosophy, law and languages (Greek and Latin) with the aim of producing educated leaders and officials for state and church. However, female participation in patriarchal society was not encouraged in the new ‘Athens of the Mediterranean’.

Kwa mfano, hali ya wanawake katika Gaza ya kikale iliyokuwa ikiiga utamaduni wa kale haikuwa bora zaidi kuliko hali ya wanawake katika Athene ya kale yenye mfumo dume ya karne ya 4 BK (Sivan 2008: 300).

For instance, the lot of women in classicising Gaza was not much better than the situation of women in the patriarchal classical Athens of the 4th century AD (Sivan 2008: 300).

Leo urithi wa kale wa ajabu wa Palestina ya Kale ya Marehemu haufundishwi Palestina; Wapalestina wenye elimu wana uwezekano mkubwa wa kukumbuka urithi wa kale wa "Nyumba ya Hekima" (Bayt al-Hikmah), kituo kikuu cha kiakili huko Baghdad katika kipindi chote cha Zama za Dhahabu za Uislamu, kuanzia karne ya 9 hadi ya 13, kuliko Shule ya Kale ya Balagha ya Gaza au Maktaba ya kale ya Caesarea Maritima. Hata hivyo, taaluma za balagha (sanaa ya hotuba) na falsafa zilikuwa kiini si tu cha maisha ya kiakili ya kale, ya kitamaduni na ya baada ya enzi ya kitamaduni, bali pia cha urithi wa kale wa Palestina ya Kale ya Marehemu. Mji mkuu wa Palaestina Prima, Caesarea, ulistawi katika Kale ya Marehemu, ukakua na kuwa kituo cha Mediterania cha kuiga mtindo wa kale, elimu, uanatheolojia na uandishi wa kihistoria, na mji wa Mediterania wa Gaza ukawa, katika kipindi cha mwishoni mwa karne ya 5 na mwanzoni mwa karne ya 6, makao ya Shule ya Balagha ya Kikristo iliyoiga mtindo wa kale (Kennedy, G. 1994: 255). Katika Shule ya Gaza, mapokeo ya kale yalikuwa yameunganishwa kwa kina na yale ya Kikristo. Miji mingine ya Palestina kubwa, kama Ascalon ('Asqalan) na Scythopolis (Beisan), nayo pia ilibadilishwa sana na uamsho huu wa baada ya enzi ya kitamaduni wa Kikristo wa Kale ya Marehemu.

Today the spectacular classical heritage of Late Antiquity Palestine is not taught in Palestine; educated Palestinians are more likely to recall the classical heritage of the ‘House of Wisdom’ (Bayt al-Hikmah), a major intellectual centre in Baghdad throughout the Golden Age of Islam from the 9th to the 13th centuries, than the classical Rhetorical School of Gaza or classical Library of Caesarea Maritima. Yet the disciplines of rhetoric (the art of discourse) and philosophy were central not only to ancient, classical and post-classical intellectual life but also to the classical heritage of Late Antiquity Palestine. If the capital city of Palaestina Prima, Caesarea, flourished in Late Antiquity, developing into a Mediterranean centre of classicising, learning, theologising and historical writings, the Mediterranean city of Gaza became in the course of the late 5th and early 6th centuries the home of a classicising Christian School of Rhetoric (Kennedy, G. 1994: 255). In the School of Gaza, the classical tradition had become deeply intertwined with the Christian one. Other cities of greater Palestine, such as Ascalon (‘Asqalan) and Scythopolis (Beisan), were also profoundly transformed by this post-classical Christian renaissance of Late Antiquity.

Kwa zaidi ya karne mbili katika Kipindi cha Marehemu cha Kale, mazingira tulivu sana na mji wenye utamaduni na elimu uliostawi sana wa Gaza, ambao wakazi wake wengi walikuwa Wakristo, yalileta kuibuka kwa ajabu kwa Shule ya Kibalagha ya Gaza. Shule hii iliathiriwa kifikra na kiutamaduni na mchanganyiko wa mapokeo mbalimbali ya Kihellenistiki ya Aleksandria, Kaisaria-Palaestina na Athene, pamoja na Uplatoniki Mamboleo wa Kikristo. Iliongozwa na wanafalsafa na wanabalagha Wakristo, akiwemo Prokopius wa Gaza (takriban 465–528

Intellectually and culturally influenced by a mix of diverse Hellenistic traditions of Alexandria, Caesarea-Palaestina and Athens, as well as by Christian Neo-Platonism, the extraordinarily relaxed setting and flourishing cultural and intellectual urban environment of Christian-majority Gaza for over two centuries in Late Antiquity brought about the spectacular rise of the Rhetorical School of Gaza, which was headed by Christian philosophers and rhetoricians including Procopius of Gaza (c. 465–528

AD) (Westberg 2009; Kennedy, D. 2008: 169) na mwanafunzi wake Choricius wa Gaza. Huyu wa mwisho alistawi mwanzoni mwa karne ya 6 BK. Katika mapokeo ya kitamaduni, upendo wa usemi wa kibalagha na upendo wa maonyesho ya kitamthilia vilienda pamoja, na huko Gaza, pamoja na miji mingine kadhaa ya Palestina, utamaduni wa tamthilia wenye kustawi ulizuka. Nafasi za faragha na za umma za Gaza yenye wengi wao Wakristo zilikuza maonyesho ya kitamthilia na maonyesho ya hadharani ya usemi wa kibalagha shuleni, katika 'majumba ya tamthilia takatifu' na hata katika 'bafu' za umma (Champion 2014: 21‒51).

AD) (Westberg 2009; Kennedy, D. 2008: 169) and his disciple Choricius of Gaza. The latter flourished in the early 6th century AD. In the classical tradition, love for rhetoric and love for theatrical performance went hand in hand and in Gaza, as well as in several other Palestinian cities, a thriving theatre culture arose. The private and public spaces of Christian-majority Gaza nurtured theatrical performances and public rhetorical displays in schools, ‘holy theatres’ and even public ‘baths’ (Champion 2014: 21‒51).

Nafasi hii ya kitamaduni inayostawi, na kwa hakika mapinduzi ya kiakili huko Gaza, ilielezwa na George A. Kennedy kama ifuatavyo:

This flourishing cultural space and indeed intellectual revolution in Gaza was described by George A. Kennedy as follows:

Gaza, kwenye pwani ya kusini ya Palestina, ilikuwa mji wa kupendeza na wenye ustawi katika karne ya tano, ambao ulishikamana na mila za kale.

Gaza, on the southern coast of Palestine, was a pleasant and prosperous city in the Fifth Century which clung to the old traditions.

Ukafiri wa Julian ulipokelewa pale kwa shangwe. Gregory wa Naziansus ... na Libanius walikuwa na mawazo mazuri kuhusu shule zake za usemi ...

Julian’s apostasy was greeted there with enthusiasm. Gregory of Naziansus ... and Libanius thought well of its rhetoric schools ...

Ingawa Ukristo huenda ulizuia kwa muda masomo ya kitamaduni huko Gaza, katika karne ya tano iliyochelewa na mwanzoni mwa karne ya sita ilikuwa makazi ya mfululizo wa wanasofista na waandishi wa mtindo wa Kiklasiki, ambao kwa pamoja wanaunda kile kinachojulikana kama Shule ya Gaza. Walio muhimu zaidi kati yao ni Prokopio na Khoriki, lakini inafaa kutaja kwa ufupi wengine kadhaa. Aenea wa Gaza alikuwa mwandishi wa mazungumzo yaliyosalia yenye kichwa Theophrastus. (Kennedy, G. 2008: 169)

Christianity may for a time have inhibited classical studies in Gaza, but in the late Fifth and early Sixth Centuries it was the home of a series of Classicizing sophists and writers who together constitute what is known as the School of Gaza. The most important of these are Procopius and Choricius, but brief mention may be made of several others. Aeneas of Gaza was the author of a surviving dialogue entitled Theophrastus. (Kennedy, G. 2008: 169)

Kwa karne nyingi kabla ya Late Antiquity, Gaza pamoja na mabaharia na wafanyabiashara wa Kiarabu walikuwa kitovu cha njia ndefu ya biashara ya viungo kutoka India hadi kusini mwa Arabia, kisha hadi Mediterania ya Mashariki na Magharibi.

For many centuries prior to Late Antiquity, Gaza and Arab sailors and traders had been central to the long-distance spice trade route from India to southern Arabia and then to the Eastern and Western Mediterranean.

Gaza pia ilipata ustawi wa kiuchumi na kijamii, kwani ilikuwa katikati ya Barabara ya Kifalme ya jadi kutoka Misri, yenye njia zinazopita Naqab na Transjordan. Barabara hii ilithibitisha hadhi yake kama mji mkuu wa bandari. Bandari yake haikuwa tu lango la miji na vijiji vya kusini mwa Palestina, bali pia la bidhaa za biashara zilizokuwa zikitoka kusini mwa Arabia na India kuelekea Bahari ya Mediterania (Hirschfeld 2004: 63).

Gaza had also achieved economic and social prosperity, being at the centre of the traditional King’s Highway from Egypt, with routes running through Naqab and Transjordan – a highway which confirmed its status as a major port city. Its port was not only the gateway to the towns and villages of southern Palestine but also for trade goods arriving from southern Arabia and India to the Mediterranean (Hirschfeld 2004: 63).

Jennifer Hevelone-Harper, katika kitabu chake *Disciples of the Desert: Monks, Laity, and Spiritual Authority in Sixth-Century Gaza* (2005), anaeleza Gaza ya karne ya sita kuwa kitovu kikuu cha uchumi, elimu na utamaduni, si kwa Palaestina Prima pekee, bali kwa eneo zima la Mashariki ya Mediterania.

Jennifer Hevelone-Harper, in Disciples of the Desert: Monks, Laity, and Spiritual Authority in Sixth-Century Gaza (2005), describes 6th century Gaza as a major economic, intellectual and cultural centre not only for Palaestina Prima but for the whole Eastern Mediterranean region:

Gaza ya zama kitovu chenye nguvu cha utamaduni na uchumi katika kipindi cha marehemu cha Kale (Antiquity). Mji wa karne ya sita ulijulikana kwa masoko yake yaliyojaa watu, ukumbi wake wa michezo wa kifahari na bafu zake, pamoja na makanisa yake ya kupendeza yaliyopambwa kwa michoro ya mosaiki, na huduma nyingine zote za kituo cha mijini chenye ustawi. Pamoja na bandari yake, Maiouma, iliyokuwa umbali wa maili kadhaa kando ya pwani, Gaza ilitumika kama kituo muhimu cha biashara, si tu kwa mkoa wake, Palestina ya Kwanza [Palaestina Prima], bali kwa Mediterania yote ya mashariki. Mji ulikuwa kituo kikuu cha viungo, hariri na bidhaa za anasa zilizoletwa kwa nchi kavu kutoka Mashariki na misafara ya ngamia; bidhaa hizo kisha zilisambazwa kwa bahari hadi sehemu zote za himaya ya magharibi.

late antique [Antiquity] Gaza was a commanding cultural and economic center ... the sixth-century city was known for its bustling market-places, its lavish theater and baths, its resplendent churches adorned with mosaics and all the other amenities of a prosperous urban center. With its port, Maiouma, a couple of miles away on the coast, Gaza served as a key commercial center, not only for its own province, Palestine I [Palaestina Prima], but for the entire eastern Mediterranean. The city was a major destination for spices, silk and luxury goods coming overland by caravan from the East; these items would then be dispersed by sea to all parts of the western empire.

Bidhaa za kienyeji kama divai, matunda yaliyokaushwa21 na kitani zilisafirishwa kutoka Gaza kwenda sehemu nyingine za ulimwengu wa Kiroma, wakati ngano iliagizwa kutoka Misri ili kulisha mji uliokuwa na watu wengi. Zaidi ya hayo, barabara iliyoelekea kaskazini-mashariki iliunganisha Gaza na Yerusalemu, kitovu kikuu cha hija ya Kikristo, umbali wa maili arobaini tu. Wageni wa Nchi Takatifu kutoka kote katika dola walihakikisha wanajumuisha safari ya kwenda Gaza katika ratiba yao ili kuona mji wa kale wa Kibiblia ambao ulikuwa mahali pa ushindi wa mwisho wa Samsoni.

Local products such as wine, dried fruit21 and flax were exported from Gaza to the rest of the Roman world, while wheat was imported from Egypt to feed the crowded city. Moreover, a road to the northeast led to Jerusalem, the chief center for Christian pilgrimage, only forty miles away. Visitors to the Holy Land from all over the empire made sure to include a trip to Gaza in their itinerary to see the ancient biblical city of Samson’s last victory.

Pamoja na kujivunia huduma za kijamii za mahali hapo, ustawi wa Gaza ya mwishoni mwa zama za kale ulizaa maendeleo ya ajabu ya kiakili na kitamaduni. Shule ya usemi wa kibalagha ya Gaza ilikuwa maarufu katika ulimwengu wote wa Bahari ya Mediterania. Wasemaji wake mashuhuri walichangia kwa kiasi kikubwa kufufuka kwa usemi wa kibalagha katika karne ya sita. (Hevelone- Harper 2005: 3)

In addition to boasting local amenities, the prosperity of late antique Gaza nurtured remarkable intellectual and cultural developments. The school of rhetoric in Gaza was famous throughout the Mediterranean world. Its distinguished orators were instrumental in bringing about a revival of rhetoric in the six century. (Hevelone- Harper 2005: 3)

Ramani ya Madaba – ushahidi wa kimwili unaoendelea kuwepo na unaojulikana zaidi kuhusu matumizi rasmi na ya kiutawala ya jina Palaestina katika Late Antiquity, ambao unaonyesha Palestina kubwa ya karne ya 6 BK – unaonyesha vijiji saba vikubwa na miji ya kimkoa kati ya Gaza na Elusa (wakati fulani mji mkuu wa Palaestina Salutaris, ambao ulikuwa na maaskofu kadhaa Waarabu), kilomita 23 kusini-magharibi mwa mji wa Beersheba. Pia, barabara mbili muhimu zilipita katika eneo hilo katika kipindi cha Wabyzantine, ikiwemo njia ya 'Barabara ya Viungo' ambayo Waarabu Wanabatea walisafirisha bidhaa za thamani kutoka Mashariki (Hirschfeld 2004: 63‒66).

The Madaba Map – the most famous surviving material evidence for the official and administrative use of the name Palaestina in Late Antiquity, which depicts greater Palestine of the 6th century AD – shows seven large villages and provincial towns between Gaza and Elusa (at one point the capital of Palaestina Salutaris which had several Arab bishops), 23 kilometres south-west of the city of Beersheba. Also, two important roads crossed the region in the Byzantine period, including the route of the ‘Spice Road’ along which the Nabataean Arabs transported precious cargoes from the East (Hirschfeld 2004: 63‒66).

Lugha za Kigiriki cha Koine na Kilatini ndizo zilizotawala Gaza ya Zama za Marehemu (Late Antiquity), ingawa Waarabu Ghassanid, waliokaa kote Palaestina na katika Gaza, walizungumza Kiarabu, na wakulima wengi wa Kipalestina walizungumza Kiaramu. Prokopio (Procopios) wa Gaza – ambaye lazima atofautishwe na mwanahistoria maarufu wa karne ya 6 wa Palestina, Prokopio wa Kaisaria-Palaestina aliyetajwa hapo juu – alikuwa mwanafalsafa wa Kikristo mwenye asili ya kipekee na mwanabalagha, na mmoja wa wawakilishi muhimu zaidi wa Shule maarufu ya Balagha ya Gaza, mji wake wa asili katika Palaestina Prima, shule iliyokuwa na athari ya kudumu katika fani ya balagha. Prokopio alitumia karibu maisha yake yote huko Gaza akifundisha na kuandika risala za kifalsafa na kibalagha.

Koine Greek and Latin were the prevalent languages of Late Antiquity Gaza, although the Ghassanid Arabs, who resided throughout Palaestina and in Gaza, spoke Arabic and much of the Palestinian peasantry spoke Aramaic. Procopius (Procopios) of Gaza – who must be distinguished from the aforementioned renowned 6th century Palestinian historian Prokopios of Caesarea-Palaestina – was an original Christian sophist and rhetorician, and one of the most important representatives of the famous Rhetorical School of his native Gaza in Palaestina Prima, a school with a lasting impact on the discipline of rhetoric. Procopius spent nearly all of his life in Gaza teaching and writing philosophical and rhetorical tracts.

Hata hivyo, tunachojua kumhusu yeye kinatoka hasa kwenye barua zake na kwenye enkomion (Kigiriki: enkomion, kihalisi maana yake ni sifa za mtu) ya mwanafunzi wake na mrithi wake Chorikios wa Gaza. Huyu wa mwisho alikuwa mwanaretoriki mwingine mashuhuri wa Kipalestina na mwakilishi wa Shule ya Retoriki ya Gaza wakati wa Mfalme Anastasius I (491–518 BK). Enkomion ya kile kilichojulikana sana kama Shule ya Retoriki ya Gaza pia inarejelea vipengele tofauti vya ufundishaji wa retoriki na aina za retoriki za Kipindi cha Marehemu cha Kale ambazo zilikua na kustawi. Kazi zilizosalia za Chorikios wa Gaza, ambazo zinajumuisha aina kuu za retoriki ya Kigiriki ya baada ya kipindi cha kale, zimewasilishwa katika mtindo wa kifahari wa Shule ya Retoriki ya Gaza pamoja na sifa zake maalum na kuepuka kwake kwa namna ya pekee, kwa uthabiti, hiatus. Kazi ya Chorikios pia ilijulikana kwa maelezo yake ya kusifu makanisa mawili huko Gaza, maelezo ambayo yanajumuisha baadhi ya mifano mashuhuri ya mapema ya ekphrasis – maelezo ya kimaneno, ya picha na ya kuigiza ya kazi ya sanaa inayoonekana – ya majengo ya makanisa.22

However, what we know about him comes mainly from his letters and from the encomium (Greek: enkomion, literally the praise of a person) of his disciple and successor Chorikios of Gaza. The latter was another major Palestinian rhetorician and a representative of the Gaza School of Rhetoric in the time of Emperor Anastasius I (491–518 AD). The encomium of what became widely known as the Gaza School of Rhetoric also refers to the distinct aspects of rhetorical pedagogy and rhetorical genres of Late Antiquity that developed and flourished. The surviving works of Chorikios of Gaza, which encompass the main genres of post-classical Greek rhetoric, are represented in the elegant style of the Gaza School of Rhetoric with its special features and peculiarly persistent avoidance of hiatus. Chorikios’ work became also known for its panegyrical descriptions of two churches in Gaza, descriptions which consist of some of the most prominent early examples of ekphrasis – a graphic, dramatic, verbal description of a visual work of art – of church buildings.22

Palestina ilisilimishwa kikamilifu na Uislamu mnamo mwaka 637–638 na Khalifa wa tatu ‘Umar, aliyeipanua Khilafah kwa kasi isiyo na kifani, akiyashinda Dola ya Sasani na takriban theluthi mbili ya Dola ya Byzantine. Katika miaka ya 690 watawala wa Bani Marwan wa ukoo wa Umayyad walianzisha mpango mkubwa wa ujenzi nchini Palestina kwa ujumla na katika Iliya (Bayt al-Maqdis/ Jerusalem) hasa. Mitindo ya usanifu wa makanisa ya Byzantine ya Palestina na Bilad al-Sham iliathiri sana usanifu wa Kiislamu wa Palestina chini ya Bani Umayyad, na mfano maarufu zaidi kati yake ni muundo mzuri wa pembe nane wa Qubbat al-Sakhrah (Kuba ya Mwamba), uliofadhiliwa na Khalifa ‘Abdel Malik ibn Marwan mnamo mwaka 685–691.

Palestine was brought fully under Islam in 637‒638 by the third Caliph ‘Umar, who expanded the Caliphate (khilafah) at an unprecedented rate, conquering the Sasanian Empire and about two-thirds of the Byzantine Empire. In the 690s the Umayyad Marwanid rulers embarked on a colossal building programme in Palestine in general and Iliya (Bayt al-Maqdis/ Jerusalem) in particular. The church architectural styles of Byzantine Palestine and Bilad al-Sham significantly influenced the Islamic architecture of Palestine under the Umayyads, the most celebrated example of which was the exquisite octagonal structure of the Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhrah), sponsored by Caliph ‘Abdel Malik ibn Marwan in 685‒691

AD. Ni jengo la kale zaidi la Kiislamu lililosalia duniani, na athari za Palestina ya Kibyzantini zinaonekana wazi katika michoro yake ya mosaiki. Uislamu na Palestina ya Kiislamu walirithi urithi wa kitamaduni, wa kimaada, wa kiutawala na wa kiakili wa Palestina ya Kibyzantini. Uchimbaji wa kiakiolojia huko al-Ramla, mji mkuu wa Jund Filastin kwa zaidi ya miaka mia tatu na nusu, uligundua michoro ya mosaiki yenye wanyama wakiwemo simba, ndege na punda (Petersen 2005). Uislamu pia ulichukua na kuendeleza zaidi mapokeo ya kifalsafa ya Kigiriki ya Aristotle na Uplatonism wa Kikristo, mapokeo ya falsafa yaliyoibuka katika karne ya 3 BK na kudumu hadi muda mfupi baada ya kufungwa kwa Chuo cha Plato huko Athene mwaka 529 BK na Mfalme Justinian I.

AD. It is the oldest extant Muslim monument in the world and Byzantine Palestine influences are evident in its mosaics. Islam and Muslim Palestine inherited the cultural, material, administrative and intellectual heritage of Byzantine Palestine. Archaeological excavations at al-Ramla, the capital of Jund Filastin for over three and a half centuries, discovered mosaics with animals including lions, birds and donkeys (Petersen 2005). Islam also absorbed and developed further the Greek Aristotelian philosophical traditions and Christian Neo-Platonism, a tradition of philosophy that arose in the 3rd century AD and persisted until shortly after the closing of the Platonic Academy in Athens in 529 AD by Emperor Justinian I.

Hata hivyo, Palestina ya Byzantium ya karne ya 4 hadi ya 6 BK iliunda upya na kuendeleza zaidi mila za Kigiriki huko Gaza na Kaisaria-Palestina.

However, Byzantine Palaestina of the 4th‒6th centuries AD recreated and developed further the Greek traditions in Gaza and Caesarea-Palaestina.

Baadaye, Enzi ya Dhahabu ya Uislamu pia ilitafsiri mapokeo haya kwenda Kiarabu na kuyaendeleza kiakili na kisayansi, kwanza katika mji mkuu wa Abbasi wa Baghdad (kuanzia mwishoni mwa karne ya 7 na kuendelea).

Subsequently the Golden Age of Islam also translated these traditions into Arabic and developed them further intellectually and scientifically, first in the Abbasid capital city of Baghdad (from the late 7th century onwards)

na baadaye katika mji mkuu wa Ummayad wa Andalus, Cordoba (kuanzia karne ya 10 na kuendelea). Si jambo lisilowezekana kwamba urithi mkubwa wa kiakili, kimali na kisayansi wa Palestina kubwa, yaani Gaza, Caesarea-Palaestina, Ascalon (‘Asqalan), Jerusalem, Scythopolis (Beisan), ulitoa mojawapo ya njia nyingi za kitamaduni kuelekea Enzi ya Dhahabu ya Uislamu kuanzia karne ya 8 hadi ya 13.

and later in the Andalus Ummayad capital city of Cordoba (from the 10th century onwards). It is not inconceivable that the extraordinary intellectual, material and scientific heritage of greater Palestine, that is, Gaza, Caesarea-Palaestina, Ascalon (‘Asqalan), Jerusalem, Scythopolis (Beisan), provided one of the many cultural routes to the Golden Age of Islam from the 8th to the 13th century.

Shule ya Balagha ya Gaza pia ilishiriki katika kukusanya maoni ya wafafanuzi wa karne zilizotangulia, na kazi yake ilichangia katika paleografia, yaani utafiti wa maandishi ya kale na ya kihistoria pamoja na namna na michakato ya uandishi. Maendeleo muhimu zaidi yaliyowahusu wanapaleografia yalikuwa ni maandishi yenyewe (script). Suala hili pia linahusika na catenae (neno la Kilatini lenye maana ya mnyororo) na uhusiano wake na scholia. Neno catenae limehifadhiwa kwa matini za Biblia zilizofafanuliwa, badala ya matini za kitambo, na tofauti iliyofanywa kati ya catenae na scholia ni kwamba ya kwanza inajaribu kutaja jina la mamlaka husika, kwa kawaida kabla ya nukuu. Katika catenae, mwandishi ni zaidi mkusanyaji na mhariri mwenye kidogo sana cha kuongeza kwenye kazi hiyo.

The Rhetorical School of Gaza was also involved in collating the opinions of commentators of preceding centuries and its work contributed to palaeography, the study of ancient and historical handwriting and of the forms and processes of writing. The most important development that concerned palaeographers was script. This issue is also applicable to the catenae (Latin for chain) and its relationship to scholia. The term catenae is reserved for annotated biblical texts rather than classical texts and the distinction made between catenae and scholia is that the former makes an attempt to cite the name of the authority, usually before the quotation. In catenae the author is more of a compiler and editor with very little to add to the work.

Mwanahistoria wa Byzantium N. G. Wilson alikuwa wa kwanza kupendekeza kwamba catenae zinatokana na Shule ya Palestina ya Gaza katika karne ya 5.

Historian of Byzantuim N. G. Wilson was the first to suggest that catenae come from the Palestine School of Gaza in the 5th century.

Procopius wa Gaza anaeleza mbinu yake katika dondoo lifuatalo kutoka kwenye hypothesis: ‘Baada ya kupewa uwezo mbele ya Mungu, tulikusanya maelezo yaliyoandikwa kutoka kwa Mababa na wengine, tukiyaunganisha katika Octateuch, tukichanganya mambo haya kutoka kwenye tafsiri na kauli mbalimbali’. Kutokana na hili tunajifunza kwamba Procopius alichukua uteuzi kutoka kwa mamlaka mbalimbali na kuuongeza kwenye maandishi. Hili lilipanua maandishi, lakini likaufanya mkusanyiko wa maoni ya Mababa wa Kanisa uwe rahisi zaidi kushughulikiwa. Zosimus wa Gaza alikuwa mwanafalsafa wa maneno (sophist) wakati wa Mfalme Anastasius. Aliandika kamusi ya kimtindo kwa mpangilio wa alfabeti na tafsiri juu ya Demosthenes na Lysias. Kwa mujibu wa mwanahistoria wa Kibyzantini wa karne ya 11, Georgius Cedrenus, Zosimus wa Gaza aliuawa wakati wa utawala wa Zeno mwaka 490 BK.

Procopius of Gaza describes his method in the following excerpt from a hypothesis: ‘Having been supplied the ability before God, we collected the explanations which were put down from the Fathers and the others into the Octateuch, combining these things from commentaries and different sayings’. From this we learn that Procopius took selections from authorities and added them to the text. This expanded the text but made the corpus of opinions of the Church Fathers more manageable. Zosimus of Gaza was a sophist during the time of Emperor Anastasius. He wrote a rhetorical lexicon according to the alphabet and a commentary on Demosthenes and Lysias. According to 11th century Byzantine historian Georgius Cedrenus, Zosimus of Gaza was put to death during the reign of Zeno in 490 AD.

Upande mmoja, huenda tukawa na Zosimus aliyeishi wakati mmoja na Prokopius, aliyehusika na scholia juu ya waandishi wa kale wa Kigiriki na Kilatini, au upande mwingine, huenda kulikuwa na watu wawili wenye jina hilo. Inawezekana kwamba mwanazuoni wa scholia, Zosimus wa Gaza, alistawi katikati ya karne ya tano. Katika hali hiyo, huenda ndiye aliyeanzisha desturi ya kuweka scholia kama zile zinazohusishwa na Zosimus (Wilson 1967: 254). Shule ya Gaza haikufanya tofauti kati ya scholia (maelezo ya pembezoni kwenye maandishi ya kale) na catenae (maelezo ya pembezoni kwenye maandishi ya Biblia). Akizungumzia mwanzo wa catenae huko Gaza, Timothy Seid anaandika: ‘Ushahidi unaonyesha kwamba maelezo ya pembezoni juu ya maandiko ya Biblia [yaliyoandikwa na wanatheolojia Wakristo] yalianza katika karne ya tano hadi ya sita, na huenda yalitokea Palestina ikiwa si shule ya Gaza yenyewe’.23

On the one hand, we may have a Zosimus contemporary with Procopius who was involved in scholia on classical authors or, on the other hand, there may have been two of that name. It is possible that the scholiast Zosimus of Gaza flourished in the mid-5th century. In that case, he may have been responsible for introducing the practice of entering scholia such as is attributed to a Zosimus (Wilson 1967: 254). The School of Gaza did not make a distinction between scholia (marginal commentary on classical texts) and catenae (marginal commentary on biblical texts). Commenting on the beginnings of catenae in Gaza, Timothy Seid writes: ‘The evidence suggests that marginal commentary on biblical texts [by Christian theologians] had a beginning in the fifth to sixth century and was probably of Palestinian origins if not the School of Gaza itself ’.23