Wakati wa msimu wa hija [Hija ya Waislamu], maelfu ya watu ambao hawawezi kusafiri kwenda Makka, huja Yerusalemu. Wanakaribia Al-Haram [eneo takatifu] na kutoa dhabihu kama inavyoelekezwa. Katika baadhi ya miaka, zaidi ya watu 20,000 [Waislamu] hutekeleza sheria ya [Hija] hapa ... Wakristo na Wayahudi pia huja hapa, kutoka nchi ya Wakristo. (Nasir Khusro, 1050 AD, alivyonukuliwa katika Matar 2013: 913)

During the season of pilgrimage [Muslim Haj], thousands who cannot travel to Mecca, come to Jerusalem. They approach the sanctuary [al-Haram] and offer sacrifices as is customary. In some years, over 20,000 [Muslim] people fulfil the [Haj] law here ... Christians and Jews come here too, from the land of the Christians. (Nasir Khusro, 1050 AD, cited in Matar 2013: 913)

Mkoa wa Kiislamu wa Kiarabu wa Jund Filastin ulikuwa mmoja wa mikoa ya kijeshi na kiutawala ya eneo la al-Sham chini ya Waumayyad na Waabbasi, mikoa iliyopangwa muda mfupi baada ya ushindi wa Waislamu wa Levant mwishoni mwa miaka ya 630. Jina rasmi, Jund Filastin, lilipitishwa kwa ujumla tangu mwanzo wa Uislamu na watawala wa Kiislamu na magavana wa Kiarabu wa Filastin (walii), wanajiografia, wachora ramani, wanahistoria, watafsiri, wachongaji, watengenezaji wa sarafu, mahujaji na wafanyabiashara wa Kiarabu na Kiislamu. Wote hao walitegemea urithi wa kale wa Palestina na Mashariki ya Karibu. Watawala, wanahistoria na wanajiografia Waarabu pia walitafsiri na kuhifadhi majina mengi ya kale ya maeneo ya Palestina na sehemu kubwa ya urithi wa kitamaduni wa Ugiriki na zama za kale katika Levant.

The Arab Islamic province of Jund Filastin was one of the military/ administrative provinces of the Umayyad and Abbasid region of al-Sham, provinces organised soon after the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the late 630s. The official name, Jund Filastin, was universally adopted from early Islam onwards by Muslim rulers and Arab governors of Filastin (walis), Arab and Muslim geographers, cartographers, historians, translators, engravers, coiners, pilgrims and merchants. They all relied on the classical heritage of Palestine and the Near East. Arab administrators, historians and geographers also translated and preserved many of the ancient place names of Palestine and much of the classical heritage of Greece and Antiquity in the Levant.

Hija ya Kiislamu kwenda Yerusalemu ilianza mapema sana, na hili liliimarishwa na ukuu na umuhimu mkuu wa mji mtakatifu pamoja na Filastini ya Kiumayyad (661‒749), jambo ambalo haliwezi kupitiliza kusisitizwa vya kutosha. Kuba la Mwamba lilikuwa patakatifu pa kwanza kubwa lililojengwa na Uislamu wa Kiumayyad kati ya mwaka 688

Islamic pilgrimage to Jerusalem began very early and this was enhanced by the grandeur and centrality of the holy city and Umayyad Filastin (661‒749), which can hardly be overstated. The Dome of the Rock was the first monumental sanctuary erected by Umayyad Islam between 688

na 691 (Murphy-O'Connor 2012: 27). Waumayyad, kama Warumi na Wabyzantine, walikuza ukuaji wa miji huko Palestina. Pia waliheshimu urithi wa pamoja na tamaduni mbalimbali za dini za nchi hiyo, na waliendeleza mila nyingi za kiutawala na mitindo ya usanifu majengo ya Wabyzantine. Kwa Waarabu Waislamu, kama ilivyokuwa kwa Wakristo wa Byzantine, Palestina (Ardhi Takatifu: Kiarabu:

and 691 (Murphy-O’Connor 2012: 27). The Umayyads, like the Romans and Byzantines, promoted urbanisation in Palestine. They also respected the multifaith and shared heritage of the country and continued many of the Byzantines’ administrative traditions and architectural styles. For the Muslim Arabs, as for the Byzantine Christians, Palestine (Holy Land: Arabic:

Ardhi Takatifu (al-Ard al-Muqaddasah) [al-Maqdisi 2002: 135]; Kiebrania: Eretz HaKodesh)

al-Ard al-Muqaddasah [al-Maqdisi 2002: 135]; Hebrew: Eretz HaKodesh)

na Yerusalemu zilikuwa nafasi maalum na takatifu. Utakatifu na umuhimu wa Yerusalemu umeandikwa katika jina lake la Kiarabu lenyewe: Bayt al-Maqdis (‘nyumba ya utakatifu’) au al-Quds (‘takatifu’). Kwa mujibu wa mtazamo wa jadi wa Kiislamu, Qibla (Kiarabu: ‘mwelekeo’), yaani mwelekeo ambao Waislamu wa mwanzo walikuwa wakisali, awali ulielekea Al-Haram Al-Sharif (Patakatifu pa Heshima) mjini Yerusalemu. Mji huo mtakatifu daima umekuwa kitovu cha ibada kubwa ya Kiislamu na hija.

and Jerusalem were a special, sacred space. The sanctity and centrality of Jerusalem is enshrined in its very Arabic name: Bayt al-Maqdis (the ‘house of the holy’) or al-Quds (the ‘holy’). According to the traditional Muslim view, the Qibla (Arabic: ‘direction’), the direction in which the first Muslims had prayed, originally faced the Noble Sanctuary in Jerusalem. The sacred city was always a focus of intense Islamic devotion and pilgrimage.

Magavana wa mkoa wa Jund Filastin walikuwa wakiteuliwa na Khalifa. Walikuwa na jukumu la makamanda wa jeshi, maulamaa wa Kiislamu, maafisa wa dini, watozaji wa kodi, polisi na watawala wa kiraia katika mkoa huo. Lakini watawala wa Bani Umayya, hasa Makhalifa wa Marwani, walionyesha shauku ya pekee kwa Palestina. Makhalifa wa Bani Umayya, kama watawala Wakristo wa Byzantium, walitofautisha wazi kati ya nyanja ya 'kidunia' (ya kisiasa, ya dunia hii) na nyanja ya 'kitakatifu', na kati ya miji mikuu ya kisiasa na ya kitakatifu ya Palestina. Kwa Wakristo wa Byzantium, tofauti hiyo, iliyorasimishwa katika Baraza la Nisea mwaka 325, ilizaa mpangilio wa kikanisa uliokuwa mgumu na wenye mkanganyiko kati ya Makao Makuu ya Askofu Mkuu wa Kaisaria-Palestina na Uaskofu Mkuu wa Aelia Capitolina. Hata hivyo, kwa watawala wa Bani Umayya, tofauti kati ya miji mikuu ya kisiasa/kidunia/kiutawala na ile ya kitakatifu ya Jund Filastin ilikuwa rahisi na moja kwa moja zaidi. Pia, maelezo yaliyofuata ya wanajiografia Waarabu kutoka karne ya 10 yanaipa uzito fulani dhana ya mji mkuu wa kiutawala dhidi ya wa kidini ('miji mikuu miwili').

The governors of the province of Jund Filastin were appointed by the Caliph. They were in charge of the army commanders, Muslim clergy, religious officials, tax collectors, police and civil administrators in the province. But the Umayyad rulers, especially the Marwani Caliphs, took a personal interest in Palestine. The Umayyad Caliphs, like the Byzantine Christian rulers, made a clear distinction between the ‘secular’ (political, worldly) and ‘sacred’ spheres and between the political (secular/ administrative/military) and sacred capitals of Palestine. For the Byzantine Christians that distinction, formalised at the Nicaea Council in 325, produced a rather complicated and confused ecclesiastical arrangement between the Archiepiscopal See of Caesarea-Palaestina and the Archbishopric of Aelia Capitolina. However, for the Umayyad rulers the distinction between political/secular/administrative and sacred capitals of Jund Filastin was simpler and more straightforward. Also, subsequent accounts by Arab geographers from the 10th century lends some weight to the secular-administrative versus religious capital (‘double capitals’)

dhana katika Palestina iliyopendekezwa katika kazi hii.

concept in Palestine suggested in this work.

Aelia Capitolina ilibaki kuwa jina rasmi la Yerusalemu hadi mwaka 638 BK, wakati Waarabu walipoiteka mji huo na kuendelea kuutumia sehemu ya kwanza ya jina lake kama Iliya.

Aelia Capitolina remained the official name of Jerusalem until 638 AD when the Arabs conquered the city and kept the first part of it as Iliya.

Iliya (baadaye Bayt al-Maqdis na al-Quds) ilikuwa mji mkuu mtakatifu wa kidini wa dola ya Umayyad na wa Palestina. Makhalifa wa Umayyad walipenda na kuheshimu Yerusalemu sana, na Mu'awiyah (602–680 BK), mwanzilishi wa nasaba ya Umayyad, inasemekana alijitangaza kuwa Khalifa huko Yerusalemu (The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1965, Juz. II: 911). Waumayyad walitumia juhudi nyingi na rasilimali nyingi kuupanua mji huo na kuustawisha Yerusalemu pamoja na miji mingine ya Palestina.

Iliya (later Bayt al-Maqdis and al-Quds) was the sacred/religious capital of the Umayyad state and of Palestine. The Umayyad Caliphs loved and honoured Jerusalem, and Mu’awiyah (602–680 AD), founder of the Umayyad dynasty, was reported to have had himself proclaimed Caliph in Jerusalem (The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1965, Vol. II: 911). The Umayyads devoted a great deal of effort and resources to its expansion and the prosperity of Jerusalem and other Palestinian cities.

Kwa kushangaza, Makhalifa wa ukoo wa Marwan wa Dola ya Umayyad walifikiria kuhamisha mji mkuu wao kutoka Damascus, mji mkuu wa kidunia, kwenda mji mtakatifu wa Jerusalem. Ingawa hatua hiyo iliachwa kwa sababu za kimkakati, katika maandalizi yao walijenga kwa ishara "majumba" yao makubwa karibu na Msikiti wa al-Aqsa. Katika uchimbaji uliofanywa na mwanaakiolojia wa Chuo Kikuu cha Kiebrania, Benyamin Mazar, katika miaka ya 1970, kusini na kusini-magharibi mwa al-Haram al-Sharif (Patakatifu pa Heshima), zilibainika mabaki ya majengo sita makubwa; majengo haya hayakutajwa katika chanzo chochote cha Kiarabu kilichoandika kuhusu kipindi hicho. Majengo hayo yaliitwa "majumba" kwa kuwa huenda yalikuwa sehemu ya tata ya serikali na kituo cha utawala cha serikali ya Umayyad huko Jerusalem.

Interestingly, the Umayyad Marwanid Caliphs considered relocating their capital from the secular capital Damascus to the holy city of Jerusalem. Although the move was abandoned for strategic reasons, in preparation they symbolically built their large ‘palaces’ adjacent to the al-Aqsa Mosque. In excavations carried out by Hebrew University archaeologist Benyamin Mazar in the 1970s, south and south-west of the al-Haram al-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) the remains of six massive buildings were uncovered; these buildings were not mentioned in any of the Arabic written sources describing the period. The buildings were labelled ‘palaces’ as they were probably part of the government complex and the administrative centre of the Umayyad government in Jerusalem.

Hakuna mahali popote palipopatikana kitu kinachofanana au kulinganishwa na tata hii ya kiserikali ya Yerusalemu ya Kiumayyad katika mji mkuu wa kidunia wa Jund Filastin, al-Ramla. Makhalifa wa Kimarwani pia waliufufua na kuimarisha nafasi kuu ya Yerusalemu katika dola ya Kiislamu. Ikiwa al-Ramla ulikuwa kitovu cha utawala wa Palestina ya Kiislamu, Yerusalemu ulikuwa moyo wa kidini wa Palestina ya Kiislamu, lakini pia wa dola yote ya Kiumayyad. Sasa, pamoja na mahujaji Wakristo ambao waliendelea kufika, kulikuwa na misafara ya mahujaji Waislamu waliokuja Yerusalemu kwa maelfu kutoka Maghreb, Iran na hata Asia ya Kati.

Nothing similar or comparable to this government complex in Umayyad Jerusalem was found in the secular capital of Jund Filastin, al-Ramla. The Marwanid Caliphs also renewed and enhanced the centrality of Jerusalem in the Muslim empire. If al-Ramla became the administrative head of Muslim Palestine, Jerusalem became the religious heart of Muslim Palestine, but also of the rest of the Umayyad Empire. Now, added to the Christian pilgrims who continued to arrive, were the convoys of Muslim pilgrims who came to Jerusalem in their thousands from the Maghreb, Iran and even Central Asia.

Jumba kubwa na la kuvutia zaidi katikati ya usanifu mzuri wa kidunia wa Bani Umayya huko Ilya (Bayt al-Maqdis) lilikuwa karibu na kona ya kusini-magharibi ya al-Haram, na lilikuwa makao ya Makhalifa wa Bani Umayya ambao walitembelea mji mtakatifu mara kwa mara. Jumba hilo inaonekana lilijengwa wakati wa utawala wa al-Walid ibn ‘Abd al-Malik (aliyetawala kuanzia mwaka 705 hadi 715), na linafanana na majumba mengine ya ngome ya Bani Umayya huko Palestina (karibu na Yeriko na karibu na Tiberia) na Syria. Jumba hilo lilikuwa na vipimo vya mita 96 kwa mita 84 na lilizungukwa na ukuta wa kinga wa mita 3, uliojengwa kwa mawe makubwa yaliyokatwa vizuri. Milango miwili mikuu, mmoja ukielekea mashariki na mwingine ukielekea magharibi, ndiyo iliyotoa njia ya kuingia katika jumba hilo. Ua pana lenye mawe yaliyotandazwa katikati ya jengo lilizungukwa na safu za nguzo zilizoshikilia dari za mabaraza. Nguzo nyingi zilitoka kwenye makanisa na majengo ya Kibyzantini huko Palestina, kama inavyothibitishwa na athari za misalaba iliyochongwa juu yake.

The largest and most impressive palace at the centre of the magnificent secular Umayyad architecture in Ilya (Bayt al-Maqdis) was near the southwest corner of the al-Haram and was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphs who visited the holy city on a regular basis. The palace was apparently constructed during the reign of the al-Walid ibn ‘Abd al-Malik (who ruled from 705 to 715) and is similar to other fortified Umayyad palaces in Palestine (near Jericho and near Tiberias) and Syria. The palace measured 96 by 84 metres and was surrounded by a 3-metre protective wall, constructed of large, trimmed stones. Two main gates, one facing east and one facing west, gave access to the palace. A broad, stone-paved courtyard in the centre of the building was surrounded by rows of columns supporting the roofing of the porticoes. Many of the columns came from Byzantine churches and buildings in Palestine, as evidenced by traces of engraved crosses on them.

Vyumba vilivyozunguka ua la kati vilikuwa vimetandikwa kwa mawe madogo bapa na vigae vya mosaiki. Plasta iliyopambwa kwa michoro ya kijiometri na mapambo ya maua ilifunika kuta nene. Daraja lilijengwa kutoka paa la jumba hadi al-Haram al-Sharif (uwanja mtukufu wa Al-Haram), likitoa njia ya moja kwa moja kuelekea Msikiti wa al-Aqsa. Jengo kubwa la kiislamu la kifahari liliharibiwa na tetemeko la ardhi la mwaka 749; ushahidi wake ni nguzo zilizoanguka na kuta zilizobomoka.2

The rooms around the central courtyard were paved with small stone slabs and mosaic. Plaster, decorated with geometric designs and floral motifs, covered the thick walls. A bridge was built from the roof of the palace to the al-Haram al-Sharif (Noble Sanctuary compound), providing direct access to the al-Aqsa Mosque. The magnificent complex of Muslim buildings was destroyed by the earthquake of 749; evidence of this is the fallen columns and collapsed walls.2

Umayyad walifanya miradi mikubwa ya ujenzi huko Yerusalemu, ambapo kitovu chake kilikuwa Dome of the Rock (ilikamilika mwaka 691

The Umayyad undertook monumental building programmes in Jerusalem, the centre of which were the Dome of the Rock (completed in 691

AD) na Msikiti wa al-Aqsa (ulikamilika mwaka 705 AD), yote mawili bado yamesimama, na yote mawili yanaendelea kuwa alama zenye nguvu zaidi za kidini na kitamaduni za Palestina. Msikiti wa al-Aqsa wenyewe ulijengwa kwa msingi wa msikiti wa awali wa Kiislamu uliojengwa ndani ya eneo la Haram al-Sharif, na kwa kuzingatia mapokeo muhimu ya Kiislamu, Isra na Mi'raj. Mapokeo haya, kwa mujibu wa Uislamu, yalihusisha safari ya usiku ya Mtume Muhammad ﷺ kwenda Jerusalem, ambayo ilitokea karibu mwaka 621 AD. Programu kubwa za ujenzi wa umma za Umayyads (za kidunia na za kidini) huko Jerusalem na al-Ramla, pamoja na majumba yao makubwa huko Jerusalem na karibu na Jericho na Tiberias, zinaonyesha kiwango ambacho Palestina ilikuwa imekuwa kitovu cha dola ya Umayyad na Uislamu wa mwanzo. Lakini kuanzishwa kwa jiji kubwa la kipekee kabisa kwa Palestina pia kuliwakilisha mwelekeo mpya mbali na zama za Byzantine na upangaji upya wa Palestina chini ya watawala wa Marwanid. Hili lilisababisha kuundwa kwa mji mkuu mpya wa mkoa wa Filastin, al-Ramla, kituo cha utawala kilichoanzishwa na Suleiman ibn 'Abd al-Malik, Gavana wa Filastin (705–715 AD) na baadaye Khalifa wa Umayyad (715‒717). Lakini mwishowe, hasa wakati wa kipindi cha Umayyad, jiji jipya la serikali lililojengwa al-Ramla halikuweza kushindana na eneo na fahari ya majengo ya Jerusalem, wala historia yake tajiri ya kidini – jiji ambalo, kama tutakavyoona katika sura ya saba, mara Salah-al Din alipokuwa amelikomboa kutoka kwa Wanajeshi wa Msalaba wa Kilatini katika karne ya 12, lingekuwa kitovu cha utawala wa Palestina yenye wengi wa Waislamu.

AD) and the al-Aqsa Mosque (completed in 705 AD), both still standing, and both remaining the most potent religious and cultural symbols of Palestine. The al-Aqsa Mosque itself was constructed on the basis of an earlier Islamic mosque built within the Haram al-Sharif compound and with reference to a key Islamic tradition, the Isra and Mi’raj. This tradition, according to Islam, involved Prophet Muhammad’s night-time journey to Jerusalem, which took place around the year 621 AD. The Umayyads’ magnificent public (secular and religious) rebuilding programmes in Jerusalem and al-Ramla and their large palaces in Jerusalem and near Jericho and Tiberias show the extent to which Palestine had become central to the Umayyad state and early Islam. But the founding of a completely new metropolitan city for Palestine also represented a break from the Byzantine past and a reorientation of Palestine under the Marwanid rulers. This resulted in the creation of a new capital city for the province of Filastin, al-Ramla, an administrative capital founded by Suleiman ibn ‘Abd al-Malik, the Governor of Filastin (705–715 AD) and later Umayyad Caliph (715‒717). But in the end, and especially during the Umayyad period, the new city of government built at al-Ramla could never rival the location and splendour of the buildings in Jerusalem, or its religiously rich history – a city which, as we shall see in chapter seven, would, once Salah-al Din had recovered from the Latin Crusaders in the 12th century, become the centre of the administration of Muslim-majority Palestine.

Kulingana na maoni yanayokubalika kwa wengi, jina Ramla linatokana na neno la Kiarabu *raml*, lenye maana ya mchanga (Palmer 1881: 217). Lakini kuna uwezekano mkubwa zaidi kwamba mji mpya wa Kiarabu uliitwa na Sulaiman ibn ‘Abd al-Malik si kwa sababu ya mchanga wake, bali kumkumbuka Ramla, mwanamke mashuhuri aliyekuwa binti wa Khalifa Mu’awiyya ibn Abu Sufyan, mwanzilishi wa nasaba ya Umayya. Sifa ya Ramla miongoni mwa wasomi watawala wa Kiumayya iliongezeka pia kwa sababu aliolewa na mmoja wa wana wa ‘Uthman, Khalifa wa tatu wa Uislamu (Roded 1994: 57). Uwezekano wa mji mkubwa kupewa jina la kumkumbuka mwanamke muhimu wa Kiumayya katika historia ya nasaba inayotawala ungeweza kwa urahisi kupuuzwa na wanahistoria Waislamu wa zama za kati waliofuata Waumayya, ambao karibu wote walikuwa wanaume na waliegemea upande wa Waabbasi.

According to the conventional wisdom, the name Ramla is derived from the Arabic word raml, meaning sand (Palmer 1881: 217). But it is more likely that the new Arab capital was named by Suleiman ibn ‘Abd al-Malik not for its sand but in memory of Ramla, a remarkable woman who was the daughter of Caliph Mu’awiyya ibn Abu Sufyan, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty. Ramla’s reputation among the Umayyad ruling elite was enhanced by the fact that she also married to a son of Uthman, the third Caliph of Islam (Roded 1994: 57). The likelihood of a major city being named in memory of an important Umayyad woman in the history of the ruling dynasty could easily have been overlooked by the post-Umayyad almost exclusively male (Abbasid-leaning) Muslim historians of the Middle Ages.

Zaidi ya hayo, jambo la muhimu ni kwamba Suleiman ibn ‘Abd al-Malik aliendelea kuishi al-Ramla, na hakuhamia mji mkuu wa dola, Dameski, baada ya kuwa Khalifa mwaka 715 BK (The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1965, Vol. II: 911). Pia anatajwa kuwa ‘mwenye sifa ya kujenga ikulu, msikiti, mfumo mkubwa wa kusambaza na kuhifadhi maji, na Nyumba ya Wapaka Rangi’; baadaye, kwa karne kadhaa, al-Ramla ilistawi kama mji wenye ngome, mabirika mengi, na mfumo ulioendelezwa sana wa kukusanya na kuhifadhi maji ya mvua (Lev 2006: 590‒591). Aidha, katika kipindi chote cha Uislamu wa awali, miji miwili, ile ya kisiasa/ya kidunia ya al-Ramla na ile ya kidini ya Jerusalem, ilikuwa kitovu cha jimbo tofauti la Waarabu wa Palestina. Jund Filastin, jimbo la Kiarabu lililounganisha majimbo ya Byzantine ya Palaestina Prima na Palaestina Tertia, lilijumuisha miji mikuu mingi ya Palestina na zaidi ya theluthi mbili ya eneo la Palestina ya Mamlaka.

In any event, crucially, Suleiman ibn ‘Abd al-Malik continued to reside in al-Ramla, and did not move to the imperial capital Damascus after he became Caliph in 715 AD (The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1965, Vol. II: 911). He is also ‘credited with the construction of a palace, a mosque, an extensive water supply and storage system and the House of the Dyers’; subsequently, and for several centuries, al-Ramla flourished as a fortified city with many cisterns and a highly developed system of rainwater collection and storage (Lev 2006: 590‒591). Moreover, throughout early Islam the two political/ secular and sacred cities of al-Ramla and Jerusalem were at the heart of a distinct Palestinian Arab province. Combining the Byzantine provinces of Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Tertia, the Arab province of Jund Filastin included most major Palestinian cities and more than two-thirds of the territory of Mandatory Palestine.

Ushahidi wa kiakiolojia na majina ya mahali unaonyesha mwendelezo wa Palestina ya kihistoria pamoja na kumbukumbu ya majina ya mahali na utamaduni wa pamoja. Yanaonyesha kwamba miji mikuu ya Palestina ya Byzantine Palaestina – Lydda, Scythopolis (Beisan), Gaza, Tiberias, Neapolis (Nablus), Jaffa, ‘Amwas/Emmuas, Rafah, Acre, ‘Asqalan, Ilya/al-Quds/Jerusalem, Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin) na Caesarea Maritima (Qaysariah) – iliendelea kufanya kazi kama vituo vya mijini katika kipindi hiki. Miji na miji midogo kadhaa mipya pia ilijengwa, hasa al-Ramla (ambayo ikawa kitovu cha utawala na biashara cha Palestina kwa karne kadhaa), iliyoko bara, mbali na mashambulizi ya baharini yaliyowezekana ya Byzantine na uwanja wa vita vya baharini vya Mediterania kati ya Byzantine na Waarabu, wakati besi mpya za majini za Waarabu na viwanja vya meli vilianzishwa Palestina (Nicolle 1996: 47). Jerusalem (kama Gaza, ‘Asqalan, Nablus, Caesarea na Jaffa) ilikuwa wilaya (qada) na mji mkuu wa kidini wa nchi hiyo. Ilipanuliwa na Umayyad kwa usanifu mpya mkubwa wa Kiarabu wa Kiislamu, na mji ukastawi kama kitovu cha kidini cha nchi nzima pamoja na kuwa mji mtakatifu kwa Wayahudi na Wakristo. Zaidi ya hayo, mitindo ya usanifu wa Palestina ya mijini na Jerusalem ya Kiislamu ilionyesha mwendelezo na urekebishaji pamoja na mchanganyiko wa mitindo ya Kiarabu ya Kiislamu na ya Byzantine.3

Archaeological finds and place names show the continuities of historic Palestine with toponymic memory and shared culture. They indicate that the major Palestinian cities of Byzantine Palaestina – Lydda, Scythopolis (Beisan), Gaza, Tiberias, Neapolis (Nablus), Jaffa, ‘Amwas/Emmuas, Rafah, Acre, ‘Asqalan, Ilya/al-Quds/Jerusalem, Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin) and Caesarea Maritima (Qaysariah) – continued to function as urban centres in this period. a number of new cities and towns were also built, most notably al-Ramla (which became the administrative and commercial centre of Palestine for several centuries), located inland, away from potential Byzantine seaborne attacks and the Mediterranean battleground between Byzantines and Arabs, while new Arab naval bases and shipyards were established in Palestine (Nicolle 1996: 47). Jerusalem (like Gaza, ‘Asqalan, Nablus, Caesarea and Jaffa) was a district (qada) and religious capital of the country It was expanded by the Umayyads with new monumental Arab Islamic architecture and the city flourished as the religious centre of the whole country as well as a holy city for Jews and Christians. Moreover, the architectural forms of urban Palestine and Islamic Jerusalem exhibited continuities and adaption and a mélange of Arab Islamic and Byzantine styles.3

Kulingana na mwanahistoria wa Kiislamu wa karne ya 9, al-Baladhuri, miji mikuu ya mkoa wa Jund Filastin ilikuwa al-Ramla, al-Quds, Gaza, ‘Asqalan, Nablus, Yafa (Jaffa), ‘Amwas, Rafah, Sabastia, Qaysariah, Tabariyyah, Beit Jibrin, al-Khalil (Hebron), Lid (Lydda) na Yubna. Yubna ni mojawapo ya miji kumi ya Jund Filastin ambayo ilitekwa na jeshi la Waarabu lililoongozwa na ‘Amr ibn al-‘Aas katika miaka ya 630 (imenukuliwa katika Le Strange 1890: 20). Nyuma katika karne ya 7, sarafu ya Waarabu na Wabyzantine ya mkoa wa Jund Filastin ilitengenezwa Yubna, Yerusalemu na Lydda (Goodwin 2004), ambayo ilikuwa mji mkuu wa awali na wa muda wa Jund Filastin.

According to the 9th century Muslim historian al-Baladuri, the principal cities/towns of the province of Jund Filastin included al-Ramla, al-Quds, Gaza, ‘Asqalan, Nablus, Yafa (Jaffa), ‘Amwas, Rafah, Sabastia, Qaysariah, Tabariyyah, Beit Jibrin, al-Khalil (Hebron), Lid (Lydda) and Yubna,4 the latter being one of ten towns in Jund Filastin conquered by the Arab army commanded by ‘Amr ibn al-‘Aas in the 630s (cited in Le Strange 1890: 20). Back in the 7th century the Arab-Byzantine coinage of the province of Jund Filastin was minted in Yubna, Jerusalem and Lydda (Goodwin 2004), the initial and temporary capital of Jund Filastin.

Masuala ya kimkakati wa kijeshi na njia kuu za biashara ya kimataifa yalikuwa mambo makuu katika kuunda dhana ya Palestina na katika kuunda historia yake chini ya utawala wa Byzantium na wa Uislamu. Mji mpya mkuu wa mkoa wa Jund Filastin, al-Ramla, ulianzishwa na Waarabu takriban mwaka 705–715 BK, na ukawa mji mkuu wa Palestina. Al-Quds (Yerusalemu) ulikuwa kitovu cha kidini cha Palestina na cha dola ya Umayyad. Al-Ramla ulichaguliwa kuwa kitovu cha utawala wa Palestina kati ya mwaka 715 BK na 940 BK kwa sababu ya eneo lake muhimu la kimkakati kando ya njia ya kihistoria ya biashara ya Via Maris (‘njia ya bahari’ au ‘njia ya Wafilisti’) kupitia Gaza hadi Misri. Huko Tantura, Via Maris ya zamani iligeuka kuelekea ndani ya nchi upande wa kulia, ikapita Marj Ibn ‘Amer, kisha karibu na Mlima Tabor ikaelekea kaskazini kuelekea Damascus.

Strategic-military considerations and international trade routes were major factors in the conceptualisation of Palestine and in shaping its history under both Byzantium and Islam. The new capital city of the province of Jund Filastin, al-Ramla, was founded by the Arabs c. 705–715 AD and became the capital of Palestine. Al-Quds (Jerusalem) was the religious centre of Palestine and the Umayyad state. Al-Ramla was chosen as the administrative centre of Palestine between 715 AD and 940 AD because of its important strategic location along the historic trade route of the Via Maris (‘way of the sea’ or ‘way of the Philistines’) via Gaza to Egypt.5 At Tantura the old Via Maris veered inland to the right and passed through Marj Ibn ‘Amer and then by Mount Tabor northward towards Damascus.

Chini ya utawala wa Waislamu, njia hii iliunganishwa na al-Fustat (Kairo ya mwanzo), na mji wa al-Sham (Dameski) ulikuwa kwenye makutano yake na barabara inayounganisha bandari ya Jaffa na mji mtakatifu wa al-Quds (Yerusalemu).

Under Muslim rule this route connected to al-Fustat (early Cairo), with the city of al-Sham (Damascus) at its intersection with the road connecting the seaport of Jaffa with holy city of al-Quds (Jerusalem).

Hata hivyo, baada ya Waislamu kuurejesha Yerusalemu kutoka kwa Wakristo wa Kilatini wa Vita vya Msalaba mnamo mwaka 1187, na baada ya Ayyubidi kuliangamiza Ufalme wa kwanza wa Kilatini wa Yerusalemu, mji mkuu wa utawala wa Filastin ulihamia al-Quds. Ufalme wa Kilatini wa Yerusalemu ulikuwa dola ya Wakristo wa Msalaba iliyoanzishwa mwaka 1099 baada ya Vita vya kwanza vya Msalaba. Baada ya Vita vya tatu vya Msalaba, ufalme huo ulianzishwa upya huko Akka mwaka 1192 na ukadumu hadi 1291. Kwa ujumla, Ufalme wa Kilatini ulidumu huko Palestina karibu miaka 200, kuanzia 1099 hadi 1291, wakati ngome yake ya mwisho na mji mkuu, Akka, uliharibiwa na Mamluk. Nafasi ya al-Quds kama mji mkuu wa utawala na wa kidini wa Palestina iliimarishwa na Ayyubidi pamoja na Mamluk (1260‒1517) katika kipindi cha baada ya Vita vya Msalaba.

However, after the Muslim recovery of Jerusalem from the Latin Crusaders in 1187 and the elimination by the Ayyubids of the first Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, the administrative capital of Filastin shifted to al-Quds. The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem had been a Crusader state established in 1099 after the First Crusade. Following the Third Crusade, the kingdom was re-established in Acre in 1192 and lasted until 1291. Overall the Latin Kingdom lasted in Palestine nearly 200 years, from 1099 until 1291, when the last stronghold and capital, Acre, was destroyed by the Mamluks. The position of al-Quds as both the administrative and religious capital of Palestine was reinforced by both the Ayyubids and the Mamluks (1260‒1517) in the post-Crusader period.

Mapema chini ya Uislamu, na kwa karne kadhaa kati ya mwanzoni mwa karne ya 8 na mwishoni mwa karne ya 11, al-Ramla ilikuwa kitovu cha kiuchumi na kisiasa cha mkoa wa Filastin, na mji mkubwa, tajiri na wenye nguvu zaidi wa biashara nchini. Al-Ramla ilikuwa katikati ya njia kuu za biashara za kaskazini‒kusini na magharibi‒mashariki, na idadi kubwa ya nyumba za wageni (khans) zilizotapakaa nchini, zikiwa umbali wa takriban kilomita 20 hadi 30 kati ya moja na nyingine, ziliwawezesha wafanyabiashara na mahujaji kupumzika usiku kucha. Nyumba hizi za wageni pia zililenga kuwezesha huduma ya posta (barid) ambayo ilikuwa imeletwa Palestina na Umayyad (Rosen-Ayalon 1998:

Earlier under Islam, and for several centuries between the early 8th and late 11th centuries, al-Ramla was the economic and political hub of the province of Filastin and the largest, richest and most powerful trading city in the country. Al-Ramla was at the centre of the north‒south and west‒east trade routes and the large number of caravanserais (khans) which dotted the country, with a distance of approximately 20 to 30 kilometres between them, allowed merchants and pilgrims to rest overnight. These khans were also intended to facilitate the postal service (barid) which had been introduced to Palestine by the Umayyads (Rosen-Ayalon 1998:

515) na ikaendelezwa zaidi chini ya nasaba mbalimbali za Waislamu zilizofuatana. Miji mingine ya kihistoria ya mkoa wa Jund Filastin katika Uislamu wa mwanzo ilikuwa al-Quds, ‘Asqalan, Gaza, Lydda, Arsuf (Kigiriki: Apollonia),6 Jaffa, Beit Jibrin, Nablus, Jericho na Qaysariah, pamoja na ‘Amman upande wa mashariki wa Mto Yordani. Katika kipindi hiki, tunaweza kuona mwendelezo na mabadiliko katika utambulisho wa kijamii, kitamaduni, kiuchumi, kiutawala na kijiografia-kisiasa wa Palestina.

515) and developed further under successive Muslim dynasties. The other historic cities of the province of Jund Filastin in early Islam were al-Quds, ‘Asqalan, Gaza, Lydda, Arsuf (Greek: Apollonia),6 Jaffa, Beit Jibrin, Nablus, Jericho and Qaysariah, with ‘Amman east of the River Jordan. During this period, we can observe both continuities and transformation in the social, cultural, economic, administrative and geo-political identities of Palestine.

Katika kipindi chote cha Zama za Kati, mahujaji wa Kiislamu na waandishi wa safari waliripoti kwamba Filastin ilifananishwa katika ulimwengu wote wa Kiislamu na mji mkuu wa nchi hiyo: al-Ramla (Khusrau 1888; Ibn Battuta 2005: 57).

Throughout the Middle Ages Muslim pilgrims and travel writers reported that Filastin was equated throughout the Muslim world with the capital city of the country: al-Ramla (Khusrau 1888; Ibn Battuta 2005: 57).

Kwa kweli, kwa karne nyingi katika kipindi cha mwanzo cha Uislamu, jina la mji mkuu wa Palestina, al-Ramla, lilikuja kuwa sawa na jina la nchi nzima, Filastin (Palestina), na mji mkuu mara nyingi uliitwa al-Ramla-Filastin na wasafiri, wanajiografia na wanahistoria wa Kiarabu wa zama za kati, vivyo hivyo na mji mkuu wa zamani wa Palestina ya Kibyzantium, Caesarea Maritima, ulivyokuwa sawa na jina la nchi nzima, Palaestina, na mara nyingi uliitwa Caesarea-Palaestina. Mara nyingine tena tunaona Uislamu ukiendeleza na kuzoea kwa vitendo mila za Palestina na mila za kiutawala na kijiografia-kisiasa za Kibyzantium za Palestina badala ya kuzibadilisha kabisa. Marekebisho na mabadiliko haya ya mila za kiutawala na kijiografia-kisiasa za Kibyzantium pia yaliathiriwa na mwelekeo wa Palestina na Mashariki ya Karibu kwa ujumla (ikiwemo Mashariki ya Karibu ya Kiarabu ya Kiislamu) wa kulinganisha nchi, majimbo au mikoa na miji mikuu yao. Kwa mfano:

Indeed, for centuries throughout early Islam the name of the capital city of Palestine, al-Ramla, became synonymous with the name of the country as a whole, Filastin (Palestine), and the capital city was often called by al-Ramla-Filastin by medieval Arab travellers, geographers and historians, in the same way as the former capital city of Byzantine Palestine, Caesarea Maritima, had become synonymous with the name of the country as a whole, Palaestina, and had often been called Caesarea-Palaestina. Once again we see Islam continuing and pragmatically adapting Palestine traditions and the Byzantine administrative and geo-political traditions of Palestine rather than replacing them completely. This adaption and transformation of Byzantine administrative and geo-political traditions was also influenced by the tendency in Palestine and the Near East as a whole (the Arab Muslim Near East included) to equate countries, provinces or regions with capital cities. For instance:

Miji mikuu ya Gaza na Ashkeloni pamoja na maeneo yake ya nje ikawa sawa na Filistia tangu mwishoni mwa Enzi ya Shaba na katika kipindi chote cha Enzi ya Chuma.

• The capital cities of Gaza and Ascalon and their hinterland became synonymous with Philistia in the late Bronze Age and throughout the Iron Age.

• Caesarea Maritima, mji mkuu wa Palaestina Prima chini ya Wabyzantine, ukawa sawa na jina la Provincia Palaestina kwa ujumla.

• Caesarea Maritima, the capital city of Palaestina Prima under the Byzantines became synonymous with Provincia Palaestina as a whole.

Al-Sham ikawa sawa na mji mkuu wa mkoa wa Kiislamu wa Dimashq (Damascus).

• Al-Sham became synonymous with the capital city of the Muslim province of Dimashq (Damascus).

Al-Fustat ilikuwa mji mkuu wa kwanza wa Misri chini ya utawala wa Waislamu. Iliitwa Misr al-Fustat na Fustat-Misr (Fustat-Misri), na neno Misr au Masr (Misri) likawa sawa na Masr al-Qadimah, mji mkuu wa zamani wa Cairo.

• The first capital of Egypt under Muslim rule, al-Fustat was called Misr al-Fustat and Fustat-Misr (Fustat-Egypt) and the term Misr or Masr (Egypt) became synonymous with Masr al-Qadimah, the capital city of old Cairo.

• Kama tutakavyoona, miji mikuu miwili ya Mfalme wa Kilatini wa Yerusalemu (na Palaestina ya Kilatini) chini ya Wapiganaji wa Msalaba wa Kifaransa, kwanza Yerusalemu na baadaye Akka, iliunganishwa na Provincia Palaestina.

• As shall we see, the two capital cities of the Latin King of Jerusalem (and Latin Palaestina) under the Frankish Crusaders, first Jerusalem and later Acre, became associated with Provincia Palaestina.

Kama tutakavyoona, mji mkuu wa Palestina ya mwishoni mwa enzi ya Ottoman, al-Quds, na mkoa wake: Kudüs-i Şerif Mutasarrıflığı (‘Mutasarrifate ya Yerusalemu Tukufu’), uliunganishwa na Filastin kwa ujumla.

• As shall we see, the capital city of late Ottoman Palestine, al-Quds, and its province: Kudüs-i Şerif Mutasarrıflığı (the ‘Mutasarrifate of Noble Jerusalem’), became associated with Filastin as a whole.

Biashara ya kimataifa na ya kikanda daima ilikuwa kiini cha ustawi wa Palestina, kwa kuwa ni nchi ya njia ya kupitia. Ingawa kijiografia Jerusalem ya kipindi hicho ilikuwa imetengwa katika eneo la milima, ukweli kwamba mji mkuu wa kidunia wa mkoa wa Filastin, al-Ramla, ulikuwa umewekwa kimkakati na kibiashara kwenye barabara kuu inayoelekea miji miwili mikuu ya Uislamu, al-Sham (Damascus) na Misr al-Fustat na Fustat-Misr (Fustat - Misri), uliongeza sana ustawi na sifa ya kimataifa ya al-Ramla. Hivyo, Filastin haikuwa tu jina rasmi la mkoa/nchi, bali kwa baadhi ya wanahistoria wa Kiarabu wa zama za kati, jina hilo pia likawa sawa na mji mkuu wa al-Ramla. Kimkakati, kijiografia, kisiasa na kibiashara, al-Ramla ilikuwa katikati ya nchi na iliunganisha mji mtakatifu wa Jerusalem na Jaffa, bandari kuu ya Bahari ya Mediterania ya Jund Filastin. Hivyo al-Ramla ilistawi kama kitovu cha utawala, kijeshi na biashara cha nchi hiyo kwa zaidi ya karne tatu (Foster 2016a).

International and regional trade was always central to the prosperity of Palestine, being a transit country. While geographically Jerusalem of the period was isolated in a mountainous region, the fact that the secular capital of the province of Filastin, al-Ramla, was strategically and commercially located on the highway leading to the two great capital cities of Islam, al-Sham (Damascus) and Misr al-Fustat and Fustat-Misr (Fustat- Egypt), greatly enhanced the prosperity and international reputation of al-Ramla. Thus Filastin was not only the official name of the province/ country but, for some medieval Arab historians, the name also became synonymous with the capital city of al-Ramla. Strategically, geo-politically and in trade terms located at the centre of the country and linking the holy city of Jerusalem with Jaffa, the main Mediterranean port of Jund Filastin, al-Ramla flourished as the administrative, military and trading hub of the country for more than three centuries (Foster 2016a).

Katika karne ya tisa iliyochelewa, mkoa wa Filastin pengine ulikuwa katika upeo wake mkubwa zaidi. Ulipanuliwa zaidi na Watulunidi, waliojitenga na Waabbasi na kutawala kutoka Misri kama nasaba huru kuanzia mwaka 868 hadi 905. Mkoa wa Filastin uliongezwa kwa madhumuni ya kiutendaji upande wa mashariki na kusini, kwa gharama ya Jund Dimashq, ili kujumuisha Bilad al-Sharat, nchi za milimani zenye rutuba kubwa katika kusini mwa Jordan ya leo na kaskazini-magharibi mwa Saudi Arabia (Salibi 1993: 18‒20; le Strange 1890: 28). Aylah (ambayo leo ni ‘Aqabah) ilikuwa mji mkubwa wa kwanza nchini Palestina kuchukuliwa na majeshi ya Kiislamu chini ya uongozi wa Nabii Muhammad ﷺ mwaka 630 BK (9 AH). Hili halishangazi: akiwa kijana, Nabii Muhammad ﷺ alijiunga na mjomba wake katika misafara ya biashara ya Syria na Palestina na akapata uzoefu wa biashara ya kimataifa na jiografia ya kikanda. Baadaye katika utu uzima, Nabii ﷺ alipata sifa ya kuwa mfanyabiashara mwaminifu na aliyefanikiwa sana, na alishiriki katika biashara ya kimataifa kati ya Bahari Nyekundu na Bahari ya Mediterania; Nabii ﷺ lazima pia alifahamu kwa karibu miji ya bandari kama Aylah (ambayo leo ni ‘Aqabah) na Gaza, ambayo wakati huo iliunganisha mitandao ya biashara ya kimataifa ya Palaestina Salutaris na Palaestina Prima. Kwa hakika, katika kipindi chote cha Uislamu wa mwanzo, Aylah ilikuwa bandari kuu ya biashara ya Filastin kwenda Asia na China (Ramadan 2010a). Mji wa bandari wa Aylah ukawa kitovu cha shughuli za kiuchumi kusini mwa Filastin na pia ulitumika kama kituo kikuu cha mapumziko kwa mahujaji Waislamu waliokuwa njiani kwenda Makka (Ramadan 2010a; 2010b). Kuhusu eneo la Bilad al-Sharat, mji wake mkuu ni al-Karak, unaojulikana leo kwa ngome yake ya Crusader, uliopo kilomita 140 kusini mwa ‘Amman, na kisha eneo katika Barabara ya Kale ya Mfalme. Katika kilele cha upanuzi wake, Jund Filastin ilienea kutoka pwani ya Bahari ya Mediterania hadi eneo lililo ng'ambo ya Bahari ya Chumvi (Bahari ya Chumvi/Bahari ya Lut), ikijumuisha Bilad al-Sharat, na kutoka al-‘Arish huko Sinai hadi Marj Ibn ‘Amer na Beisan upande wa kaskazini, huku sehemu kubwa ya Galilaya ikiwa sehemu ya Jund al-Urdun (“mkoa wa kijeshi wa Yordani”). Miji yake iliyokaliwa zaidi na Waislamu ilikuwa ni Gaza, Nablus, Yafa, Lidda, al-Ramla, Qaysariah, ‘Amwas, Yubna, Rafah, Sabastiyah (Sebastia) na Beit Jibrin.

In the late 9th century the province of Filastin was probably at its greatest extent. It was expanded further by the Tulunids, who broke away from the Abbasids and ruled from Egypt as an independent dynasty from 868 until 905. The province of Filastin was enlarged for practical purposes eastwards and southwards, at the expense of Jund Dimashq, to include Bilad al-Sharat, the highlands and highly fertile region in modern-day southern Jordan and north-western Saudi Arabia (Salibi 1993: 18‒20; le Strange 1890: 28). Aylah (present-day ‘Aqabah) was the first major town in Palestine to be taken over by Muslim forces under the leadership of Prophet Muhammad in 630 AD (9 AH). This is hardly surprising: in his teens, Prophet Muhammad had joined his uncle on Syrian‒Palestinian trading caravans and had gained experience in international trade and regional geography. Later in adult life, the Prophet acquired the reputation of being a trustworthy and very successful trader, and he was involved in international trade between the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea; the Prophet must have also been closely familiar with port cities such as Aylah (present-day ‘Aqabah), and Gaza, which, at the time, linked the international trade networks of Palaestina Salutaris and Palaestina Prima. Indeed, throughout early Islam Aylah became the major trading port of Filastin to Asia and China (Ramadan 2010a). The port city of Aylah became a centre of economic activity in southern Filastin and also served as a major stopover for Muslim pilgrims en route to Mecca (Ramadan 2010a; 2010b). As for the Bilad al-Sharat region, its principal city is al-Karak, known today for its Crusader castle, located 140 kilometres to the south of ‘Amman and then a site on the ancient King’s Highway. At its greatest extent, Jund Filastin extended from the Mediterranean coast to the region beyond the Dead Sea, to include Bilad al-Sharat, and from al-‘Arish in Sinai to Marj Ibn ‘Amer and Beisan in the north, with most of Galilee being part of Jund al-Urdun (the ‘military province of Jordan’). Its predominantly Muslim towns included Gaza, Nablus, Jaffa, Lydda, al-Ramla, Qaysariah, ‘Amwas, Yubna, Rafah, Sabastiyah (Sebastia) and Beit Jibrin.

Mji mkuu wa kisiasa wa Filastin, al-Ramla, ulijulikana katika ulimwengu wote wa Kiislamu kwa Msikiti wake Mweupe wa ajabu sana – ambao mnara wake bado umesimama – na kwa rutuba ya udongo wa wilaya hiyo, wingi wa miti yake ya matunda na ‘matunda matamu’. Wakati huo huo, mji mkuu wa kidini wa Palestina, Bayt al-Maqdis, ulifanyiwa ukarabati si tu kwa umuhimu wake wa kidini bali pia kwa uzuri wa majengo yake ya mawe na usanifu wake wa kupendeza (al-Maqdisi 2002: 34‒35). Wakati chini ya Wabyzantine Kaisaria ilikuwa kwa karne nyingi mji mkubwa zaidi katika Palaestina, kwa karne tatu chini ya Uislamu al-Ramla ukawa mji mkuu mkubwa zaidi wa nchi hiyo. Al-Ramla ulielezewa mwishoni mwa karne ya 10 na mwanahistoria na mwanajiografia al-Maqdisi, aliyezaliwa Jerusalem, kama mmoja wa miji ‘bora’ katika maeneo yote ya Kiislamu (al-Maqdisi 2002: 35). Yeye alisema yafuatayo:

The political capital of Filastin, al-Ramla, became famous throughout the Muslim world for its spectacularly beautiful White Mosque – whose minaret is still standing – and for the fertility of the soil of the district, the abundance of its fruit trees and ‘tasty fruits’, while the religious capital of Palestine, Bayt al-Maqdis, was renovated not only for its religious significance but also for the beauty of its stone buildings and its exquisite architecture (al-Maqdisi 2002: 34‒35). While under the Byzantines Caesarea had for centuries been the largest city in Palaestina, for three centuries under Islam al-Ramla became the largest metropolitan city in the country. Al-Ramla was described in the late 10th century by the Jerusalem-born historian and geographer al-Maqdisi as one of the ‘best’ cities in the whole Muslim regions (al-Maqdisi 2002: 35). He had this to say:

Ar-Ramlah ni mji mkuu wa Palestina [Kiarabu: Qasbat Filastin]. Ni mji mzuri na uliojengwa vizuri. Maji yake ni mepesi na mengi, matunda yake ni mengi. Unajumuisha faida nyingi ... ukiwa umezungukwa na mandhari yenye fadhila, vijiji vya kupendeza na miji mikubwa, na karibu na maeneo matakatifu. Biashara ndani yake ni yenye mafanikio na masoko yake ni bora. Hakuna msikiti mzuri zaidi katika Uislamu kuliko ule wa mjini humo ... hakuna matunda matamu zaidi katika Uislamu kuliko yale ya mjini humo na miji inayouzunguka ... nyumba zake za wageni ni za kupendeza na hammam [bafu za umma] zake ni nadhifu ... nyumba zake ni kubwa ... misikiti yake ni mizuri, mitaa yake ni mipana ... barabara zake zinaelekea ... Bayt al-Maqdis [Yerusalemu] barabara ... barabara ya Lydda, barabara ya Jaffa, barabara ya Misri, barabara ya Dajon ... Msikiti mkuu wa mji mkuu [Ar-Ramlah], uliopo katika masoko, ni mzuri na wa kupendeza zaidi hata kuliko ule [Msikiti Mkuu] wa Damascus. Unaitwa Al Abyad [Msikiti Mweupe]. Katika Uislamu wote hakuna mihrab [niche ya kuswalia] kubwa kuliko ile iliyopo hapa [Ar-Ramlah], na mimbari yake ndiyo nzuri zaidi kuonekana baada ya ile ya Bayt al-Maqdis; pia ina mnara mzuri uliojengwa na Hisham ibn ‘Abdel-Malik. (Al-Maqdisi 2002: 143‒144; pia amenukuliwa na Le Strange 1890: 304‒305)

Ar-Ramlah is the capital of Palestine [Arabic: Qasbat Filastin]. It is a beautiful and well built city. Its water is light and plentiful, its fruits are abundant. It encompasses manifold advantages ... situated as it is in the midst of virtuous landscape, of pleasant villages and lordly towns and near to holy places. Commerce in it is prosperous and the markers are excellent. There is no finer mosque in Islam than the one in the city ... there are no fruits in Islam tastier than in the city and its surrounding towns ... its hostels are pleasant and its hammams [public baths] are elegant ... its houses are large ... its mosques are good, its streets are wide ... its roads lead ... to Bayt al-Maqdis [Jerusalem] road ... Lydda road, Jaffa road, Egypt road, Dajon toad ... The chief mosque in the capital [Ar-Ramlah], located in the markets, is even more beautiful and graceful than that of [the Great Mosque] of Damascus. It is called Al Abyad [the White Mosque]. In all Islam there is found no bigger mihrab [prayer niche] than the one here [in Ar-Ramlah] and its pulpit is the most splendid to be seen after that of Bayt al-Maqdis; also it possesses a beautiful minaret built by Hisham ibn ‘Abdel-Malik. (Al-Maqdisi 2002: 143‒144; also cited in Le Strange 1890: 304‒305)

Kwa wazi al-Maqdisi mwenyewe alijua vizuri na hakika alijivunia utambulisho wake wa "Mjerusalemu" na urithi wake wa Kipalestina. Cha kushangaza, hata hivyo, kutokana na safari zake nyingi kote katika ulimwengu wa Kiislamu na kazi zake nyingi, anaeleza majina na vyeo thelathini na sita ambavyo aliitwa navyo katika safari zake; miongoni mwake ni 'Mjerusalemu [Maqdisi], Mpalestina [Filastini], Mmisri, Mmaghribi, Mkhurasani ... faqih, sufi ... mtalii ... mfanyabiashara, imam ... Mwiraqi, Mbaghdadi, Mshami ... Mhanafi ...

Clearly al-Maqdisi himself was fully aware and indeed proud of his ‘Jerusalemite’ identity and Palestinian heritage. Interestingly, however, in view of his extensive travels throughout the Muslim world and his multiple occupations, he describes the thirty-six names and designations by which he was called throughout his journeys and these included ‘Jerusalemite [Maqdisi], Palestinian [Filastini], Egyptian, Maghribi, Khurasani ... faqih, sufi ... tourist ... trader, imam ... Iraqi, Baghdadi, Shami ... Hanafi ...

mwalimu, Sheikh’ (al-Maqdisi 2002: 41).

teacher, sheikh’ (al-Maqdisi 2002: 41).

Ushahidi wa al-Maqdisi unatupa pia ufahamu wa jinsi utambulisho wa Kipalestina wenye tabaka nyingi ulivyojengwa katika karne ya 10 na mtu mwenye elimu ya juu na aliyesafiri sana, ujenzi ambao kwa njia nyingi unafanana na ujenzi wa utambulisho wa kikanda wa Kipalestina uliofanywa na al-Maqdisi, Mujir al-Din al-ʿUlaymi, Khair al-Din al-Ramli na Salih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtashi katika karne ya 10 hadi 17 (tazama hapa chini). Utambulisho huu unaanzia katika mji wa asili wa al-Maqdisi (Yerusalemu/Bayt al-Mqdis), mji uliopo katika eneo la kiutawala la Filastin, ambalo liko katika eneo kubwa la al-Sham, ndani ya ulimwengu wa Uislamu (al-Maqdisi 2002: 41, 143‒144).

Al-Maqdisi’s account also gives us an insight into the construction of a multi-layered Palestinian identity in the 10th century by a highly educated and extensively travelled individual, a construction which in many ways echoes the construction of a regional Palestinian identity by al-Maqdisi, Mujir al-Din al-ʿUlaymi, Khair al-Din al-Ramli and Salih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtashi in the 10th‒17th centuries (see below). The identity begins with al-Maqdisi’s native city (Jerusalem/Bayt al-Mqdis), a city in the administrative region of Filastin, which is in the greater region of al-Sham, in the domain of Islam (al-Maqdisi 2002: 41, 143‒144).