9.6 Mabadiliko ya Mtazamo katika Palestina ya Mwishoni mwa Enzi ya Waothmani (1872‒1917): Mwendelezo wa Kihistoria na Mgawanyo wa Kiutawala wa Palestina - Palestina: Historia ya Miaka Elfu Nne | Quran Course

9.6 Mabadiliko ya Mtazamo katika Palestina ya Mwishoni mwa Enzi ya Waothmani (1872‒1917): Mwendelezo wa Kihistoria na Mgawanyo wa Kiutawala wa Palestina - Palestina: Historia ya Miaka Elfu Nne | Quran Course

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9.6 Mabadiliko ya Mtazamo katika Palestina ya Mwishoni mwa Enzi ya Waothmani (1872‒1917): Mwendelezo wa Kihistoria na Mgawanyo wa Kiutawala wa Palestina

9.6 Paradigm Shift In Late Ottoman Palestine (1872‒1917): Historical Continuities And Administrative Division Of Palestine

by Nur Masalha7 min readViewed 336 times

'Abdul-Karim Rafeq, mwanahistoria mashuhuri wa Syria aliyeanzisha matumizi ya kumbukumbu za mahakama za sharia za Kiislamu (sijillat) kama vyanzo vya historia ya kijamii na hasa ya miji, na aliyeandika kwa kina kuhusu Syria na Palestina chini ya Dola ya Ottoman, alikutana na neno la Kiarabu Filastin mara kadhaa (Rafeq 1990; Gerber 2008: 51). Miongoni mwa vyanzo vya Kiarabu vya Rafeq kuhusu Palestina ya mwishoni mwa karne ya 19 kulikuwa na hati ya Kiarabu ya mwaka 1879 ya mwandishi wa Damascus Nu'man al-Qasatli, iitwayo: 'al-Rawda al-Numaniyya in the Travelogue to Palestine and some Syrian Towns' (Rafeq 1990; Gerber 2008: 51), ambayo inatoa uchunguzi wa Palestina wa miaka ya 1870. Kuongezeka kwa matumizi ya istilahi za Kiarabu Falastin na Filastin katika nusu ya pili ya karne ya 19, pamoja na mtazamo unaokua (wa kienyeji, kikanda na kimataifa) kwamba Palestina ya kisasa/Ardhi Takatifu ilikuwa tofauti, kama si tenganishi, na Syria ya kisasa, vilikuwa miongoni mwa viashiria vingi vya mabadiliko ya dhana katika mtazamo kuhusu Palestina ya mwishoni mwa enzi ya Ottoman. Hata hivyo, kwa kuzingatia matumizi ya maandishi ya maneno Filastin, Filistin na Falastin katika vyanzo vya asili vya "kifasihi-kitaaluma" vya Kiarabu, ni lazima daima kukumbuka muktadha wa utamaduni wa mdomo na wa kusikiliza uliotawala Palestina kabla ya kisasa. Pia, muhimu zaidi, tofauti na kuanzishwa kwa mashine za uchapishaji barani Ulaya katika karne ya 15, ambazo hatua kwa hatua zilileta kusoma na kuandika kwa wingi na machapisho ya wingi, Palestina ilipata mashine zake za kwanza za uchapishaji karne tano baadaye, mwishoni mwa karne ya 19. Baadaye, mashine moja maarufu ya uchapishaji huko Jaffa iliitwa 'Palestine Press', مطبعة فلسطين – kwa hiyo, bila shaka, kiasi cha machapisho ya "kifasihi-kitaaluma" kuhusu Palestina kwa Kiarabu kabla ya mwishoni mwa karne ya 19 (ikilinganishwa na milima ya vyanzo katika lugha za Ulaya) kilikuwa kidogo.

Kwa sababu nyingi (kubwa kati yake likiwa ni kinyang'anyiro cha mataifa ya Ulaya kutaka Palestina/Ardhi Takatifu, na kuingia kwao hasa humo), mtazamo wa watawala wa Dola ya Ottoman iliyokuwa ikipungua kuhusu umuhimu wa Palestina ulianza kubadilika kwa kiasi kikubwa katika nusu ya pili ya karne ya 19. Mchakato huu ulikuwa wa taratibu, na ulionekana pia katika kamusi za Kituruki cha Ottoman‒Kiingereza za mapema na katikati ya karne ya 19: neno 'Ardhi Takatifu' mara nyingi lilitafsiriwa kuwa 'Filastin'. Kamusi moja asilia kama hiyo ilitolewa mwaka 1856 na Sir James Redhouse, *An English and Turkish Dictionary*, ambayo baadaye ilitumika kama msingi wa kamusi nyingi za Kituruki‒Kiingereza. Redhouse alilitafsiri neno la Kiingereza 'Holy Land' kwa maandishi ya Kiarabu kuwa 'Dar Filastin' (دار فلسطين), yaani 'nchi ya Palestina'; Redhouse 1856.)⁸ Katika istilahi za Kiislamu, ambazo Redhouse na maafisa wa Ottoman wote walikuwa wakizifahamu, umbo la umoja la Kiarabu *dar* laweza kumaanisha 'nyumba', 'mahali', 'ardhi', 'nchi', 'eneo' au 'himaya'. Kamusi hii iliagizwa na American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, shirika kubwa na muhimu zaidi la kimisionari la Marekani katika karne ya 19. Shirika hilo lilianzisha misheni mpya huko Palestina mwaka 1819. Lakini Redhouse mwenyewe alikuwa amefanya kazi kwa serikali ya Ottoman kwa miaka mingi, kwanza kama mchora ramani mwishoni mwa miaka ya 1820 kabla ya kurudi Uingereza mwaka 1834 kuchapisha kamusi yake ya kwanza ya Ottoman‒Kiingereza. Mwaka 1838 Redhouse alirudi Istanbul kufanya kazi kwa serikali ya Ottoman kama mkalimani wa Vezir-i Azam (kimsingi Waziri Mkuu) na Waziri wa Mambo ya Nje. Mwaka 1840 Redhouse alihamishiwa Admiralty ya Ottoman na kuwa mjumbe wa Baraza la Majini la Ottoman. Katika nafasi hiyo, alikwenda Syria‒Palestina kusaidia mawasiliano kati ya meli za Uingereza na za Ottoman, ambazo wakati huo zilikuwa zikiziba vikosi vya Misri chini ya amri ya Ibrahim Pasha huko Levant. Baada ya kumalizika kwa utawala wa Misri huko Palestina na Syria mwaka 1841, Redhouse alipokea Amri ya Kifalme ya Sultani ya Iftar Nisani mwaka 1941, mojawapo ya amri za kishujaa za Dola ya Ottoman. Alibaki Istanbul hadi mwaka 1853 kabla ya kurudi London kufanya kazi kwa Ofisi ya Mambo ya Nje ya Uingereza.

For a host of reasons (top of which was the European powers’ scramble for, and actual penetration of, Palestine/Holy Land), the perception of the importance of Palestine by the rulers of the shrinking Ottoman Empire began to change radically in the second half of the 19th century. This was a gradual process and was also reflected in Ottoman Turkish‒English dictionaries of the early and mid-19th century: the term ‘Holy Land’ was often rendered into ‘Filastin’. One such original dictionary was produced in 1856 by Sir James Redhouse, An English and Turkish Dictionary, which was later used as the basis for many Turkish‒English dictionaries, translated the English term ‘Holy Land’ into the Arabic script as ‘Dar Filastin’ دار فلسطين) ), or or ‘land of Palestine’; Redhouse 1856.).8 In Islamic terminology, with which both Redhouse and Ottoman officials were familiar, the Arabic singular form dar may mean ‘house’, ‘place’, ‘land’, ‘country’, ‘region’ or ‘territory’. This dictionary was commissioned by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, the largest and most important American missionary organisation in the 19th century. The Board started a new mission to Palestine in 1819. But Redhouse himself had worked for the Ottoman government for many years, first as a draftsman in the late 1820s before he returned to England in 1834 to publish his first Ottoman‒ English dictionary. In 1838 Redhouse returned to Istanbul to work for the Ottoman government as an interpreter to the Vezir-i Azam (effectively Prime Minister) and the Minister for Foreign Affairs. In 1840 Redhouse was transferred to the Ottoman Admiralty and became a member of the Ottoman Naval Council. In this capacity, he went to Syria-Palestine to help with communications between the British and Ottoman fleets which at the time were blockading the Egyptian forces in the Levant under the command of Ibrahim Pasha. After the end of Egyptian rule in Palestine and Syria in 1841 Redhouse received the Sultan’s Imperial Order Iftar Nisani in 1941, one of the chivalric orders of the Ottoman Empire. He remained in Istanbul until 1853 before returning to London to work for the British Foreign Office.

Mwaka 1872 Waothmani pia waliunda sanjaki za kiutawala za Nablus na Acre, ambazo, pamoja na Mutasarrifate ya Jerusalem, ziliunda msingi wa eneo la Palestina ya Mamlaka mwaka 1917-18. Hata hivyo, wanahistoria walishindwa kutambua kwamba mizizi ya kihistoria ya Palestina ya Mamlaka na msingi wa eneo la sanjaki ya Acre vinarejea karne ya 18, na kwamba mkoa (pashalik) wa Acre haukuwa mkoa wa kawaida ulioundwa na mamlaka za Waothmani. Mkoa wa Acre ulikuwa uumbaji wa kisasa wa katikati ya karne ya 18. Ulilazimishwa kwa ufanisi kwa Dola ya Waothmani na Dhahir al-ʿUmar, aliyeshinda jeshi la Waothmani kijeshi, akaiteka Acre mwaka 1749 na kuifanya mji mkuu wa emirate yake yenye makao Galilaya. Emirate hiyo, kwa vitendo, ilichukua nafasi ya mkoa wa zamani wa kiutawala wa Waothmani wa Sidon. Kwa kweli, mamlaka dhaifu za Waothmani baadaye zililazimika kutambua utawala wa al-ʿUmar katika sehemu kubwa za Palestina, na walimpa rasmi cheo cha ‘Sheikh wa Acre, Emir wa Nazareti, Tiberias, Safed, na Sheikh wa Galilaya yote’ (Philipp 2015).

In 1872 the Ottomans also created the administrative sanjaks of Nablus and Acre, both of which, together of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem, formed the territorial basis of Mandatory Palestine in 1917-18. However, historians failed to recognise that both the historical roots of Mandatory Palestine and the territorial basis of the sanjak of Acre go back to the 18th century and to the fact that the province (pashalik) of Acre was not a traditional province created by the Ottoman authorities. The province of Acre was a modern creation of the mid-18th century. It was effectively imposed on the Ottoman Empire by Dhahir al-ʿUmar, who militarily defeated the Ottoman army, occupied Acre in 1749 and made it the capital of his Galilee-based emirate. The latter, in effect, had replaced the old Ottoman administrative province of Sidon. In fact, the weak Ottoman authorities were subsequently forced to recognise al-ʿUmar’s regime in large parts of Palestine and he was officially granted by them the title of ‘Sheikh of Acre, Emir of Nazareth, Tiberias, Safed, and Sheikh of all Galilee’ (Philipp 2015).

Mpangilio wa kiutawala wa Dola ya Ottoman huko Palestina katika miaka ya 1870 pia unatupa baadhi ya dalili za viungo visivyopingika kati ya siasa na uchumi wa Palestina ya karne ya 18 na ile ya Palestina ya mwishoni mwa Ottoman iliyokuwa ikibadilika. Acre na Nablus zilikuwa vituo vyenye nguvu zaidi vya biashara na utengenezaji wa bidhaa za Palestina katika karibu karne zote za 18 na 19, na zote mbili zilikuwa kiini cha biashara ya kimataifa ya pamba na nguo ya Palestina na al-Sham. Pia, jambo la msingi ni kwamba Acre ilikuwa mji mkuu wa tawala mbili zilizojitegemea kivitendo zenye msingi wake Palestina, zile za Dhaher al-ʿUmar na Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, kwa karibu nusu karne kuanzia mwaka 1746 hadi 1804. Pia, cha kuvutia, wakati sanjak mbili za Nablus na Acre zilipoanzishwa, mwanzoni ziliwekwa chini ya mamlaka ya kisiasa ya Mutasarrifate ya Jerusalem, badala ya ile ya Damascus (al-Sham). Hili linaashiria mwanzo wa dhana mpya ya Palestina iliyojengwa juu ya wazo la Ardhi Takatifu iliyoungana – wazo lililoanza kuunda fikra za Ulaya katika karne ya 19, na mjadala ambao maafisa wa Ottoman huko Palestina na wasomi wa kienyeji wa Palestina walikuwa wakiufahamu kwa undani – kuwa chini ya utawala wa moja kwa moja kutoka kwa mutasarrif aliyeteuliwa Istanbul.

Ottoman administrative reorganisation of Palestine in the 1870s also provides us with some clues as to the unmistakable links between the politics and economy of 18th century Palestine and that of evolving late Ottoman Palestine. Acre and Nablus were Palestine’s most powerful trade and manufacturing centres throughout most of the 18th and 19th centuries and both were central to Palestine’s and al-Sham’s global trade in cotton and textiles. Also, crucially, Acre had been the capital of two practically independent Palestinebased regimes, those of Dhaher al-ʿUmar and Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, for almost half a century from 1746 to 1804. Also, interestingly, when the two sanjaks of Nablus and Acre were established, they were initially placed under the political authority of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem, rather than that of Damascus (al-Sham). This suggests the beginning of a new conceptualisation of Palestine based on the idea of a unified Holy Land – an idea which began to shape European thinking in the 19th century and a discourse with which both Ottoman officials in Palestine and local Palestinian elites were acutely aware – subject to direct rule from an Istanbul-appointed mutasarrif.

Mwendelezo wa kihistoria katika mgawanyo wa kijiografia wa Palestina unapaswa kukumbukwa. Mgawanyo wa Palestina ya Ottoman katika sehemu tatu, kuanzia kusini (Mutasarrifate ya Yerusalemu Tukufu) hadi kaskazini (sanjaki za Nablus na Acre, mtawalia), unafanana na migawanyo ya awali ya nchi hiyo chini ya Uislamu wa mwanzo (Jund Filastin na Jund al-Urdun) na chini ya Wabyzantini (Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda na Palaestina Salutaris) (Rosen-Ayalon 2006: 15). Bila shaka, mitazamo ina nguvu kubwa, na kwa kuangalia nyuma kihistoria, mtazamo huu wa Palestina ya marehemu ya Ottoman/Ardhi Takatifu kama 'Tatu katika Moja' – 'mutasarriflik moja na sanjaki mbili katika eyalet moja', ikiwa na kitovu chake Yerusalemu na ikiongozwa na Mutasarrifate ya Yerusalemu – si ya kubuniwa kabisa wala si ya kipekee kihistoria. Kihistoria, tayari tumeona uwakilishi huu wa 'Tatu katika Moja' wa Provincia Palaestina chini ya Wabyzantini katika Late Antiquity, kipindi ambacho wazo la Ardhi Takatifu pia lilijitokeza na kuimarika. Bila shaka, 'sanjaki tatu' zinalingana na 'Palestina tatu' (Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda, Palaestina Tertia); zimejengwa juu ya mlinganisho wa ubunifu wa 'Tatu katika Moja'.

Historical continuities in the geographic division of Palestine should be kept in mind. The three-way division of Ottoman Palestine from south (Mutasarrifate of Noble Jerusalem) to north (the sanjaks of Nablus and Acre respectively) echoes previous divisions of the country under both early Islam (Jund Filastin and Jund al-Urdun) and the Byzantines (Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda and Palaestina Salutaris) (Rosen-Ayalon 2006: 15). Of course, perceptions are very powerful and with historical hindsight this perception of late Ottoman Palestine/Holy Land as ‘Three in One’ – ‘One mutasarriflik and two sanjaks in one eyalet’, centred on Jerusalem and led by the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem – is not entirely unjustified or historically unprecedented. Historically, we have already seen this ‘Three in One’ representation of Provincia Palaestina under the Byzantines in Late Antiquity, during which period the notion of the Holy Land also emerged and was consolidated. Of course, the ‘Three sanjaks’ are equivalent to the ‘Three Palestines’ (Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda, Palaestina Tertia); they are based on the creative analogy of ‘Three in One’.

Kwa hakika, katika kipindi chote cha nusu ya pili ya karne ya 19, maafisa wa Ottoman huko Palestina walikuwa wameazimia kupinga uingiliaji wa Ulaya katika Ardhi Takatifu, huku wakitoa maridhiano kwa mataifa ya Ulaya chini ya shinikizo kali au kutokana na mabadiliko ya miungano ya Ottoman na mataifa hayo ya Ulaya. Kwa mtazamo wa mabadiliko yaliyotokea Palestina ya marehemu ya Ottoman, dhana ya upangaji upya wa kiutawala wa Ottoman wa Palestina kama mkoa wa 'Tatu katika Moja', ukijumuisha sanjaki mbili za kiutawala na mutasarriflik, na ukiwa umejikita katika Mutasarrifate ya Yerusalemu Tukufu, kwa dhahiri uliathiri kwa kiasi kikubwa fikra za kifalme za Uingereza wakati wa Vita vya Kwanza vya Dunia, lakini hasa baada ya mwaka 1918. Kwa mfano, mwaka 1921 Komishna Mkuu wa kwanza wa Uingereza kwa Palestina, Sir Herbert Samuel, alianzisha Baraza Kuu la Waislamu lililojumuisha rais na wanachama wanne, wawili kati yao wakiwakilisha Mutasarrifate ya zamani ya Yerusalemu Tukufu na wawili waliobaki wakiwakilisha sanjaki za zamani za Nablus na Acre.

Of course, throughout the second half of the 19th century Ottoman officials in Palestine were determined to resist European intervention in the Holy Land, while making concessions to European powers either under intense pressures or due to shifting Ottoman alliances with European powers. From the perspective of the changes in late Ottoman Palestine, the perception of the Ottoman administrative rearrangement of Palestine as a ‘Three in One’ province, consisting of two administrative sanjaks and mutasarriflik and centred on the Mutasarrifate of Noble Jerusalem, evidently had a major impact on British imperial thinking during the First World War but especially after 1918. For instance, in 1921 the first British High Commissioner for Palestine, Sir Herbert Samuel, established the Supreme Muslim Council which consisted of a president and four members, two of whom were to represent the former Mutasarrifate of Noble Jerusalem and the remaining two to represent the former sanjaks of Nablus and Acre.

Katikati ya mabadiliko ya dhana katika Palestina ya marehemu ya Kiottoman kulikuwa na mtazamo, katika kipindi chote cha mwishoni mwa karne ya 19, kwamba Mutasarrifate ya Yerusalemu, pamoja na sanjaki za Nablus na Akka, ziliunganisha 'Palestina' ya kihistoria, au Nchi Takatifu, kuwa nchi moja tofauti. Mtazamo huu haukuwa mdogo kwa waandishi wa Ulaya na Wapalestina pekee. Kisiasa na kimkakati, dhana hii pia ilidhihirika katika hati muhimu ya Kiottoman, Filastin Risalesi, kitabu cha mwongozo wa kijeshi kilichotolewa kwa usambazaji mdogo kwa maafisa wa Jeshi la Eighth Army Corps huko Palestina mwanzoni mwa Vita vya Kwanza vya Dunia. Likiwa ni uchunguzi wa kidemografia na kijiografia wa mkoa wa Palestina, mwongozo huo ulijumuisha ramani za kitopografia, majedwali ya takwimu na jiografia-kabila ya Palestina. Pia ulikuwa na ramani ya jumla ya nchi ambamo mipaka ya Palestina ilienea mbali zaidi ya mipaka ya Mutasarrifate ya Yerusalemu. Mwaka 1872, mipaka ya mutasarriflik hii, yenye wilaya zake tano (qadas) za Yerusalemu, Jafa, Gaza, Beersheba na al-Khalil, ilikuwa na mfanano na uainishaji wa Byzantine wa Palaestina Prima pamoja na uainishaji wa mapema wa Kiislamu wa Kiarabu wa Jund Filastin. Mipaka ya kaskazini ya ramani ya Filastin Risalesi ilijumuisha Mto Litani na mji wa Tiro. Ramani hiyo ilizunguka Galilaya yote na sehemu za kusini mwa Lebanon, pamoja na sanjaki za Nablus na Akka (Tamari 2011).

Central to the paradigm shift in late Ottoman Palestine was the perception throughout the late 19th century that the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem, together with the sanjaks of Nablus and Acre, unified historic ‘Palestine’, or the Holy Land, into a distinct country. This was not confined to European and Palestinian authors. Politically and strategically this conception was also evident from an important Ottoman document, Filastin Risalesi, a military handbook issued for limited distribution to the officers of the Eighth Army Corps in Palestine at the beginning of the First World War. A demographic and geographic survey of the Palestine province, the manual included topographic maps, statistical tables and a geo-ethnography of Palestine. It also contained a general map of the country in which the boundaries of Palestine extended far beyond the frontiers of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem. In 1872 the boundaries of this mutasarriflik, with its five districts (qadas) of Jerusalem, Jafa, Gaza, Beersheba and al-Khalil, had analogies to both the Byzantine delineation of Palaestina Prima and the early Arab Islamic delineation of Jund Filastin. The northern borders of the Filastin Risalesi map included the Litani River and the city of Tyre. The map encompassed all of the Galilee and parts of southern Lebanon, as well as the sanjaks of Nablus and Acre (Tamari 2011).