Utukufu wa jiografia na ramani za Kiarabu uliendelea hadi mwishoni mwa Enzi za Kati, na mnamo mwaka 1154, wakati Ufalme wa Kikristo wa Yerusalemu wa Walaatini wa Vita vya Msalaba ulipokuwa katika kilele chake, Palestina ilitajwa kwenye ramani ya dunia ya kazi kubwa ya Kiarabu, Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi’khtirāq al-Afaq (yenye tafsiri ya The Pleasure of Him who Longs to Cross the Horizons), iliyotayarishwa na mwanajiografia na mtengenezaji wa ramani Mwarabu wa Andalusia, Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165), mwanajiografia mashuhuri zaidi wa zama zake. Kazi hiyo, inayojulikana kwa Kilatini kama Tabula Rogeriana (Kiarabu: Kitab Rujar, Kitabu cha Roger) na Opus Geographicum, ni kazi bora ya al-Idrisi yenye taarifa nyingi za kijiografia na maelezo ya dunia iliyojulikana, ikiwa na ramani ya dunia inayoonyesha Filastin kwa Kiarabu.

The glories of Arab geography and cartography continued well into the late Middle Ages and in 1154, at the height to the Latin Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, Palestine was mentioned on the world map of the Arabic magnum opus, Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi’khtirāq al-Afaq (translated as The Pleasure of Him who Longs to Cross the Horizons), produced by Andalusian Arab geographer and cartographer Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165), the foremost geographer of his age. Becoming famous in Latin as the Tabula Rogeriana (Arabic: Kitab Rujar, The Book of Roger) and Opus Geographicum, al-Idrisi’s masterpiece of geographical information and a description of the known world included a world map, showing Filastin in Arabic.

Ukizingatia kwamba al-Idrisi alifanya kazi yake miongo kadhaa baada ya ushindi wa Wakrusadi huko Yerusalemu (alizaliwa mwaka mmoja baadaye), shauku ya Palestina ilikuwa juu kabisa, na ramani pamoja na fasihi zilizojumuisha nchi hiyo zilikuwa zikitafutwa sana.

Bearing in mind that al-Idrisi was working decades after the Crusaders’ victory in Jerusalem (he was born a year after), interest in Palestine was at an all-time high, and maps and literature including the country were sought after.

Al-Idrisi alikuwa amekaa Palermo, wakati huo mji mkuu wa nguvu inayoinukia ya Mediterania na kitovu cha uishi-pamoja wa kiutamaduni wa Kikristo na Waarabu Waislamu, na alikuwa amefanya kazi ya maelezo na michoro ya ramani hiyo kwa miaka kumi na tano katika mahakama ya Mfalme Mnormani Roger II, mwanzilishi wa Ufalme wa Sisili katika nusu ya kwanza ya karne ya 12, mwenye urithi mchanganyiko wa kiutamaduni, ambaye aliagiza kazi hiyo karibu mwaka 1138 (Houben 2002:

Al-Idrisi had settled in Palermo, then the capital of a rising Mediterranean power and a centre of Christian and Arab Muslim cultural convivencia, and had worked on the commentaries and illustrations of the map for fifteen years at the court of the Norman King Roger II, the founder of the Kingdom of Sicily in the first half of the 12th century, with a mixed cultural heritage, who commissioned the work around 1138 (Houben 2002:

102‒104; Maqbul 1992). Al-Idrisi alisafiri sana Ulaya, Afrika Kaskazini na Asia Magharibi, na alikusanya taarifa kutoka kwa wasafiri wa Kiislamu, mabaharia na wafanyabiashara. Akiongozwa na Ramani ya Dunia ya Ptolemy (iliyojadiliwa hapo juu), Ramani ya Dunia ya al-Idrisi ilikuwa ya kisasa zaidi, na kwa karne tatu zilizofuata wanajiografia waliichukulia ramani yake kuwa sahihi zaidi na kuinakili bila mabadiliko (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992; Edson 2007: 42‒43).

102‒104; Maqbul 1992). Al-Idrisi travelled extensively in Europe, North Africa and West Asia and gathered information from Muslim travellers, sailors and merchants. Inspired by Ptolemy’s Map of the World (discussed above), al-Idrisi’s Map of the World was far more advanced and for the next three centuries geographers treated his map as the most accurate and copied it without alteration (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992; Edson 2007: 42‒43).

Toleo fupi la Kiarabu la Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi-Ikhtiraq al-Afaq lilichapishwa huko Roma mwaka 1592 likiwa na jina: De Geographia Universali (Maqbul 1992; al-Idrisi 1592). Lilichapishwa na Chapisho la Medici la chuo kikuu cha Roma, na hili lilikuwa mojawapo ya vitabu vya kwanza vya Kiarabu kuchapishwa. (Hopkins and Levtzion 2000:

An abridged Arabic version of Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi-Ikhtiraq al-Afaq was published in Rome in 1592 with title: De Geographia Universali (Maqbul 1992; al-Idrisi 1592). Printed by Rome’s academic Medic Press, this was one of the first Arabic books to be printed. (Hopkins and Levtzion 2000:

104–131). Nakala kamili zaidi ya Kiarabu, ambayo inajumuisha ramani ya dunia na ramani zote sabini za sehemu, imehifadhiwa mjini Istanbul (Pinto 2006: 140).

104–131). The most complete Arabic manuscript, which includes the world map and all seventy sectional maps, is kept in Istanbul (Pinto 2006: 140).

Karne moja na nusu baada ya ramani ya dunia ya Idrisi kutengenezwa, Palestina ilionekana kwenye ramani nyingine ya dunia, safari hii ikichorwa na Marino Sanudo (takriban 1270–1343), mfanyabiashara wa Venice aliyesafiri hadi Palestina mara kadhaa na kuchora ramani kulingana na safari zake. Sanudo pia alikuwa mtu mashuhuri wa umma na mwanajiografia aliyejulikana sana kwa juhudi zake za maisha yote za kufufua Vita vya Msalaba vya Kilatini baada ya kuanguka kwa Akka, mji mkuu wa mwisho wa Ufalme wa Kilatini, mwaka 1291. Kwa Wavenice, kutengeneza fedha, biashara ya baharini na kupigana Vita vya Msalaba kwa ajili ya Nchi Takatifu vilienda pamoja. Ghafla, kwa kupoteza utajiri mkubwa wa Akka (na sehemu kubwa ya pwani ya Galilaya na Lebanoni), Wavenice na washirika wao wa Ulaya walipoteza biashara yenye faida, bandari za mitaa, mali kubwa za kimwili, makazi, makanisa, nyumba za watawa, na Amri maarufu za kidini-kijeshi kama vile Watemplari, Wahospitalari na Wajerumani wa Teutonic huko Akka. Kufikia mwaka 1307 Sanudo alikuwa ameandika kitabu, Conditiones Terrae Sanctae, ambacho kwa vitendo kilikuwa mwongozo wa kimkakati wa mipango ya Vita vya Msalaba na kwa ajili ya kurejeshwa kwa Palestina na Ulaya. Ramani ya Akka ilijumuishwa katika kitabu cha Sanudo (Edson 2004: 133). Pia, ramani ya dunia ilionekana katika hati nyingi za Sanudo za mapema karne ya 14.

A century and a half after Idrisi’s world map was produced, Palestine was found on another world map, this time by Marino Sanudo (c. 1270– 1343) a Venetian merchant who travelled to Palestine a number of times and drew maps based on his travels. Sanudo was also a public figure and geographer who became widely known for his lifelong attempts to revive the Latin Crusades following the fall of Acre, the last capital of the Latin Kingdom, in 1291. For the Venetians, money-making, maritime trade and crusading for the Holy Land went hand in hand. Suddenly, with the loss of the considerable wealth of Acre (and much of the Galilean and Lebanese coasts), the Venetians, and their European allies, had lost lucrative trade, local harbours, considerable material assets, residential quarters, churches, monasteries and the famous religio-military Orders such as the Templars, Hospitallers and Teutonic Knights in Acre. By 1307 Sanudo had written a book, Conditiones Terrae Sanctae, effectively a strategic manual for crusading schemes and for European reconquest of Palestine. A map of Acre was included in Sanudo’s book (Edson 2004: 133). Also, a world map appeared in most of Sanudo’s manuscripts of the early 14th century.

Mwanahistoria Evelyn Edson anaandika:

Historian Evelyn Edson writes:

Ramani ya Mediterania ya Mashariki … ambayo inaonyesha uwanja mkuu wa operesheni kwa kampeni iliyopendekezwa na Sanudo, ni mchanganyiko wa ramani ya baharini na ramani ya ndani … Zikiwa zimepangwa kando ya pwani ya kusini ya Asia Ndogo, na kando ya pwani za Palestina na Misri na kisiwa cha Kupro, kuna orodha ya majina ya bandari.

The map of the Eastern Mediterranean … which shows the main theatre of operations for Sanudo’s proposed campaign, is a combination of a marine chart and a map of the interior … Lined up along the southern coast of Asia Minor, and the shores of Palestine and Egypt and the island of Cyprus, is a series of names of ports.

Kwenye pwani ya Palestina, ramani hizi zinaambatana na alama zinazoonyesha umbali kwa maili. Katika maeneo ya ndani, yanayoonyeshwa kwa namna isiyo wazi zaidi, kuna sifa kubwa zaidi kama mito ya Tigris na Frati, pamoja na nchi za Mesopotamia, Uajemi na Kaldea. (Edson 2004: 139)

On the coast of Palestine these are accompanied by indications of distances in miles. In the interior, much more vaguely indicated, are larger features such as the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the countries of Mesopotamia, Persia and Chaldea. (Edson 2004: 139)

Kwa karibu karne tatu, ramani ya dunia ya al-Idrisi ilichukuliwa na wanajiografia, wachora ramani na wanahistoria wa Kiarabu na Kiulaya kuwa ndiyo sahihi zaidi, nao wakainakili bila kuibadilisha (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992:

For nearly three centuries al-Idrisi’s world map was treated by Arab and European geographers, cartographers and historians as the most accurate and they copied it without alteration (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992:

156‒174). Katika katikati ya karne ya 15, ramani ya dunia ya Fra Mauro (alifariki 1464), mtawa na mchora ramani wa Kiitaliano aliyeishi katika Jamhuri ya Venice lakini pia alifanya kazi kwa wafalme wa Ureno, ilichukua nafasi ya ramani ya al-Idrisi ya karne ya 12. Akiwa kijana, Mauro alisafiri sana kama mfanyabiashara na askari, na akajifunza kuhusu maeneo ya Mashariki ya Karibu.

156‒174). In the mid-15th century the mappa mundi of Fra Mauro (died 1464), an Italian cartographer and monk who lived in the Republic of Venice but also worked for the Portuguese kings, came to replace al-Idrisi’s map from the 12th century. In his youth, Mauro had travelled extensively as a merchant and a soldier and became familiar with the Near East regions.

Mwaka 1450 Mauro alikamilisha ramani ya dunia, ambayo ikawa ramani yenye maelezo mengi zaidi na sahihi zaidi ya dunia hadi wakati huo. Miongoni mwa vyanzo vya Mauro tunapata waandishi wa kale wa Kigiriki na Kirumi pamoja na Jiografia ya Ptolemy, pia wataalamu wa ramani wa Kiarabu na ramani za al-Idrisi za karne ya 12.

In 1450 Mauro completed a world map, which became the most detailed and accurate map of the world up to that time. Among Mauro’s sources we find classical authors and Ptolemy’s Geography as well as Arab cartographers and the 12th century maps of al-Idrisi.

Mauro na ramani yake ya dunia hutaja Palaestina kwa sababu za kidini-kisiasa na za kiutendaji. Ikiwa ramani ya al-Idrisi ya karne ya 12 iliagizwa na Mfalme Roger II wa Sicily na ilitumikia ufalme wa Kikristo wa Mediterania uliokuwa na biashara na uhusiano wa kidini na Palestina, basi ramani ya Mauro iliagizwa na Mfalme Alfonso V wa Ureno na ilitumikia Dola ya Ureno inayoinuka kimataifa. Lakini "nchi ya Yesu" ilikuwa kitovu cha mtawa huyo wa Kiitaliano na cha mahujaji wa Kikristo waliokwenda Terra Sancta. Hata hivyo, ukubwa wa Palestina/Terra Sancta umepunguzwa sana kwa sababu ilibidi kuweka nafasi kwa maeneo mengine yote kwenye ramani, na Mauro alihisi alilazimika kuomba msamaha kwa jambo hili.

Mauro’s world map mentions Palaestina for religio-political and practical purposes. If al-Idrisi’s map in the 12th century was commissioned by King Roger II of Sicily and in the service of a trading Mediterranean Christian kingdom with religious connections to Palestine, Mauro’s map was commissioned by King Alfonso V of Portugal in the service of the rising global Portuguese Empire. But the ‘land of Jesus’ was central to the Italian monk and to Christian pilgrims to Terra Sancta. However, the size of Palestine/ Terra Sancta is considerably reduced by having to accommodate all the other places on the map and Mauro feels he had to apologise for this:

"Wale wenye ujuzi wangeweka hapa katika Idumea, Palestina na Galilaya mambo ambayo sikuyaonyesha, kama mto Yordani, bahari ya Tiberia, Bahari ya Chumvi na sehemu nyingine, kwa sababu hapakuwa na nafasi ya kutosha" (Edson 2007: 151).

‘Those who are knowledgeable would put here in Idumea, Palestine and Galilee things which I have not shown, such as the river Jordan, the sea of Tiberias, the Dead Sea and other places, because there was not enough room’ (Edson 2007: 151).

Mapinduzi ya uchapishaji katika Ulaya ya Renaissance na kuenea kwa mashine ya uchapishaji kuanzia mwishoni mwa karne ya 15 kulileta enzi ya mzunguko mkubwa wa mawazo, yenye athari kubwa katika uwakilishi wa Nchi Takatifu/Palestina kwa watu wengi. Katika enzi ya Renaissance ya Ulaya na Italia, uwakilishi wa Palestina/Nchi Takatifu kwa njia ya ramani pia uliongezeka kwa kasi. Ramani iliyoitwa ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ ilichapishwa mjini Florence karibu mwaka 1480, na ilijumuishwa katika toleo lililopanuliwa la Francesco Berlinghieri la Geographia (Jiografia) ya Ptolemy. Berlinghieri, msomi na mwanadiplomasia wa Renaissance wa Italia, alikuwa Mzungu wa kwanza wa kisasa kutafsiri, kupanua na kuchapisha tena kazi za mwanajiografia huyu wa Kigiriki wa karne ya 2. Inaonekana ramani ya ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ ilitegemea ramani ya Sanudo‒Vesconte ya Palestina, ramani iliyotengenezwa na Pietro Vesconte (aliyekuwa hai kati ya mwaka 1310 na 1330) na Marino Sanudo, ambayo ilichapishwa kwa mara ya kwanza mjini Venice karibu mwaka 1320.1 Vesconte alikuwa mchora ramani, mwanajiografia na mtengenezaji wa chati za urambazaji kutoka Genoa aliyefanya kazi mjini Venice. Pia alitoa ramani ya dunia, atlasi ya baharini, ramani ya Palestina na mpango wa Acre na Yerusalemu, ili ziingizwe katika kazi ya Marino Sanuto iitwayo Liber secretorum fidelium cruces super terrae sanctae recuperatione et Conservatione, kazi inayojadili njia za biashara na ililenga kuhamasisha kampeni mpya ya Kilatini ya msalaba, ikitoa mwongozo wa ushindi wa kijeshi wa kuurejesha Nchi Takatifu (Edson 2004: 139; Bagrow 2010: 69‒70). Ingawa hatua kwa hatua mawazo ya vita vipya vya msalaba yalianza kupungua, ramani ya Sanudo‒Vesconte na ramani za ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ zilikusudiwa kuonyesha nguvu za Ulaya na kutoa picha za kisasa za uwakilishi wa Palestina kwa Wazungu hadi karne ya 18.

The printing revolution in Renaissance Europe and the spread of the press from the late 15th century onwards introduced an era of mass circulation of ideas with considerable impact on the mass representation of the Holy Land/Palestine. In the European and Italian Renaissance era cartographic representations of Palestine/the Holy Land also increased sharply. The map of ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ was published in Florence around 1480 and was included in Francesco Berlinghieri’s expanded edition of Ptolemy’s Geographia (Geography). Berlinghieri, an Italian Renaissance scholar and diplomat, was the first modern European to interpret, expand upon and republish the works of the 2nd century Greek geographer. Apparently the ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ map was based on the Sanudo‒ Vesconte map of Palestine, a map produced by Pietro Vesconte (who was active between 1310 and 1330) and Marino Sanudo, first published in Venice around 1320.1 Vesconte was a Genoese cartographer, geographer and navigational chart-maker who worked in Venice. He also provided a world map, nautical atlas, a map of Palestine and plan of Acre and Jerusalem for inclusion in Marino Sanuto’s Liber secretorum fidelium cruces super terrae sanctae recuperatione et Conservatione, a work which discusses trade routes and was aimed at encouraging a new Latin crusading campaign, providing a manual for the military reconquest of the Holy Land (Edson 2004: 139; Bagrow 2010: 69‒70). Although gradually ideas of new military crusades began to subside, the Sanudo‒Vesconte map and the maps of ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ were destined to project European power and provide modern representational images of Palestine for the Europeans until the 18th century.

Mapinduzi ya uchapishaji barani Ulaya yalifanya iwezekane kwa ramani nyingi za kina za 'Palestina/Palaestina' kuchapishwa na kusambazwa Ulaya katika karne yote ya 18. Mwaka 1714, kitabu cha Palaestina ex monumentis Veteris illustrata kilichoandikwa na mtaalamu wa ramani wa Uholanzi, mwanafilolojia na mtaalamu wa Mashariki wa Biblia Hadrianus Relandus, kilionyesha jiografia ya Palestina kwa kutumia ramani. Katika Dola ya Ottoman, uchapishaji wa vitabu na ramani ulianza tu mwaka 1729.

The European printing revolution made it possible for dozens of detailed maps of ‘Palestina/Palaestina’ to be published and circulated in Europe throughout the 18th century. In 1714 Palaestina ex monumentis Veteris illustrata by Dutch cartographer, philologist and biblical Orientalist Hadrianus Relandus illustrated the geography of Palestine with maps. In the Ottoman Empire, the printing of books and maps started only in 1729

Na mwaka 1803, Ottoman *Cedid Atlas Tercümesi* (Tafsiri ya Atlasi Mpya), iliyochapishwa mjini Istanbul, ilitegemea kwa sehemu maarifa ya kijiografia ya Ulaya pamoja na mbinu za utengenezaji wa ramani zilizotumika Ulaya wakati huo. Ikichapishwa ndani ya mfumo wa 'mfumo mpya' wa mageuzi ya utawala na kijeshi ya Ottoman wa wakati huo, Atlasi Mpya hiyo ilijumuisha ramani ya Filastin na bar‑Sham (eneo la nyuma la al‑Sham) yenye neno la Kiarabu Ard Filastin ('Nchi ya Palestina'; liliandikwa kwa namna ya kipekee: ارض فلاستان ) lililoonyeshwa kwa herufi kubwa za Kiarabu upande wa chini kushoto mwa ramani. Kama tutakavyoona hapa chini, uchapishaji wa atlasi hii mpya ya Ottoman ulitangulia uchapishaji wa 'Atlasi ya Jacotin' kwa miaka ishirini na tatu, ambayo ilikuwa na ramani iliyotumia herufi za Kiarabu kwa 'Palestina' na 'nchi ya al-Quds' ( فلسطين أو أرض قدس ).

and in 1803 the Ottoman Cedid Atlas Tercümesi (A Translation of a New Atlas), published in Istanbul, was partly based on European geographical knowledge as well as European map-making methods of the day. Published within the framework of the ‘new system’ of the Ottoman administrative and military reforms of the time, the New Atlas included a map of Filastin and bar‑Sham (hinterland of al‑Sham) with the Arabic term Ard Filastin (‘Land of Palestine’; written in a peculiar way: ارض فلاستان ) shown in large Arabic script on the bottom left of the map. As we shall see below, the publication of this new Ottoman atlas preceded the publication of ‘Jacotin Atlas’, which had a map using the Arabic script for ‘Palestine’ and the ‘land of al-Quds’ ( فلسطين أو أرض قدس ) by twenty-three years.

Katika karne ya 19, uamsho wa kimapenzi wa Ulaya kuhusu Vita vya Msalaba ulijidhihirisha katika sanaa, shauku ya kidini na siasa, na kupenya kwa Waingereza halisi huko Palestina kulipambwa upya kwa sura ya "vita vya amani" na Uorientalism wa Kibiblia.

In the 19th century European romantic Crusader revivalism in art, religious fervour and politics and British actual penetration of Palestine were repackaged in the form of a ‘peace crusade’ and biblical Orientalism.

Kupenya kwa taratibu huku kwa Palestina ya mwishoni mwa enzi ya Ottoman kulifikia kilele chake katika Azimio la Balfour la Novemba 1917, lililounga mkono Uzayuni, na katika uvamizi halisi wa kijeshi wa Uingereza wa Palestina mwaka 1917.

This gradual penetration of late Ottoman Palestine culminated in the pro-Zionist Balfour Declaration of November 1917 and the actual British military occupation of Palestine in 1917.