Kwa miongo mingi katika karne ya 18, utawala unaojitegemea wa Dhaher al-ʿUmar, wenye makao yake Galilaya, ukiwa na viungo vilivyoongezeka vya biashara na Ufaransa na Uingereza hasa, uliunganisha kwa ufanisi Galilaya na pwani yote ya Palestina kutoka Lebanon hadi Gaza. Kwa hiyo haishangazi kwamba katika karne ya 19, athari kwa pamoja ya masimulizi ya safari za Ulaya (‘travels in Palestine’), miongozo ya safari, risala za kidini, riwaya, simulizi za mahujaji na ramani ilitofautisha wazi kati ya ‘Palestina’ na ‘Syria’, na kuitendea Palestina ya kihistoria/Ardhi Takatifu kama nchi tofauti kwa kila madhumuni ya vitendo. Zaidi ya hayo, katika karne ya 19, kwa wasafiri na mahujaji wa Ulaya na Urusi, Palestina na Ardhi Takatifu zilikuwa visawe na zinaweza kubadilishana. Usawe huu haukujumuisha Syria, jambo lililofanya Palestina itofautiane wazi na Syria iliyoko kaskazini. Katika karne ya 19, uamsho wa kidini, pamoja na utaifa wa kimasihi uliokuwa na homa kali, harakati za ‘rudi kwenye Biblia’ na ‘ugunduzi upya’ wa Palestina, vilienea kote Ulaya na Urusi. Zaidi ya hayo, katika Uorientalism wa Ulaya na Urusi wa karne ya 19, ‘Palestina’ na ‘Ardhi Takatifu/Terra Sancta/nchi ya Yesu’ zilibadilishana maana. Mtazamo huu wa kidini-kisiasa kuhusu Palestina, uliojaa hadithi za Agano Jipya, uliifanya Palestina/Ardhi Takatifu ionekane tofauti kabisa na Syria na Lebanon, na kuifanya Galilaya (mahali alipozaliwa Yesu na eneo la hadithi nyingi za Agano Jipya)

For many decades in the 18th century the Galilee-based autonomous regime of Dhaher al-ʿUmar – with its increased trade links with France and Britain in particular – effectively linked the Galilee with the entire Palestinian coast from Lebanon to Gaza. It is not surprising, therefore, that throughout the 19th century the combined effect of European travelogues (‘travels in Palestine’), guide books, religious treatises, novels, pilgrims’ accounts and maps made a clear distinction between ‘Palestine’ and ‘Syria’ and treated historic Palestine/Holy Land for all practical purposes as a separate country. Moreover, throughout the 19th century for European and Russian travellers and pilgrims Palestine and the Holy Land were synonymous and interchangeable. This synonymy did not include Syria, which made Palestine sharply distinct from Syria to the north. In the 19th century religious revivalism, combined with feverish messianic nationalism, ‘back to the Bible’ movements and ‘rediscovery’ of Palestine, swept across Europe and Russia. Moreover, in European and Russian Orientalisms of the 19th century ‘Palestine’ and the ‘Holy Land/Terra Sancta/the land of Jesus’ were interchangeable. This religio-political perception of Palestine, steeped in the stories of the New Testament, made Palestine/the Holy Land seem sharply distinct from Syria and Lebanon and made the Galilee (the birthplace of Jesus and the scene of many of the stories of the New Testament)

kwa asili na kwa karibu imeunganishwa na Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Hebron, Jaffa na Gaza, zaidi ya uhusiano wake wa kawaida chini ya Uislamu na eneo kubwa la al-Sham.

inherently and closely linked with Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Hebron, Jaffa and Gaza, more than its traditionally close links under Islam with the vast al-Sham region.

Kuenea kwa dhana ya Palestina kulionyeshwa na milima ya fasihi ya kijiografia kuhusu Palestina iliyoorodheshwa katika Bibliotheca geographica Palaestinae ya mwaka 1890 ya Gustav Reinhold Röhricht, mwanahistoria Mjerumani wa Vita vya Msalaba. Röhricht alitoa orodha ya hesabu ya simulizi 3515 zilizochapishwa na zilizoandikwa kwa mkono zilizotolewa kwa fasihi ya Palestina kati ya mwaka 333 BK na 1878 BK. Kazi hiyo pia ilikuwa na orodha ya ramani zinazohusiana na Palestina kwa mpangilio wa wakati. Uchunguzi wa Röhricht wa fasihi na machapisho ya Palestina unaonyesha yafuatayo:

The popularisation of the concept of Palestine was illustrated by the mountains of geographical literature on Palestine listed in the 1890 Bibliotheca geographica Palaestinae by Gustav Reinhold Röhricht, a German historian of the Crusades. Röhricht provided a census of 3515 print and manuscript accounts dedicated to Palestine literature between 333 AD and 1878 AD. The work also had a chronological list of maps relating to Palestine. Röhricht’s survey of Palestine literature and publications shows the following:

(a) 333 hadi 1300 BK: kazi 177 (b) Karne ya 14: kazi 97

(a) 333 to 1300 AD: 177 works (b) 14th century: 97

(c) Karne ya 15 – pamoja na uvumbuzi wa mashine ya uchapishaji–: 279

(c) 15th century – with the invention of the printing press–: 279

(d) Karne ya 16: 333

(d) 16th century: 333

(e) Karne ya 17: 390

(e) 17th century: 390

(f) Karne ya 18: 318

(f ) 18th century: 318

(g) Karne ya 19 (hadi 1878) – kwa kubadilishwa kwa mashine za uchapishaji za mkono za aina ya Gutenberg na mashine zinazotumia mvuke, ambazo ziliruhusu uchapishaji wa kiviwanda:1915 kazi. (Shalev 2012: 79)

(g) 19th century (until 1878) – with the replacement of the handoperated Gutenberg-style presses by steam-powered presses which allowed printing on an industrial scale –:1915 works. (Shalev 2012: 79)

Hata hivyo, utafiti huu wa ajabu haukuwa kamili kabisa. Safari za waandishi wa Magharibi kwenda Palestina katika karne ya 18 na 19 zilijumuisha maelfu ya vitabu, makala na nyaraka nyingine zilizoeleza kwa kina safari za wasafiri kutoka Ulaya, Urusi na Amerika Kaskazini kuelekea Ardhi Takatifu.

However, this remarkable survey was far from being exhaustive. Western travelogues of Palestine in the 18th and 19th centuries included thousands of books, articles and other materials detailing accounts of the journeys of European, Russian and North American travellers to the Holy Land.

Kwa kuchochewa na ubepari wa kisasa, teknolojia mpya za uchapishaji na njia mpya za usafiri, safari nyingi zilizoandikwa kuhusu Palestina ziliichukulia nchi hiyo si kama ardhi ya historia hai na kumbukumbu za pamoja za watu wa kawaida, bali zaidi kama kumbukumbu ya Ukristo wa Magharibi – Ukristo uliokuwa ukitafuta utambulisho mpya katikati ya mapambano makali kati ya usomi wa kisayansi na mashaka, upande mmoja, na uinjilisti wa kimsingi wa kimaandiko, upande mwingine. Kwa mfano, jarida la Kanisa la Uingereza, The Church Quarterly Review la mwaka 1891, lilieleza kitabu cha Röhricht kuwa ‘cha lazima’ kwa wanafunzi wa jiografia ya Palestina. Uchunguzi wa Röhricht wa fasihi kuhusu Palestina unafichua zaidi kuhusu vipindi viwili mahususi:

Fuelled by modern capitalism, new printing technologies and new transport means, many of the travelogues on Palestine treated the country not so much as a land of living histories and shared memories of ordinary people but more of a memorial to Western Christianity – a Christianity in search of a new identity in the midst of the raging struggle between scientific rationalism and scepticism, on the one hand, and literalist evangelist fundamentalism, on the other. Typically, a Church of England journal, The Church Quarterly Review of 1891, described Röhricht’s book as ‘indispensable’ to students of Palestinian geography. Röhricht’s survey of Palestine literature is most revealing with regard to two particular periods:

kipindi cha Renaissance na karne ya 19. Vipindi hivi viwili vilishuhudia mapinduzi mawili makubwa ya kiteknolojia barani Ulaya, yaliyokuwa na athari kubwa kwa fasihi ya Palestina: kwanza, mapinduzi ya uchapishaji wa Renaissance, yaliyoanza mwishoni mwa karne ya 15, yalianzisha enzi ya usambazaji mkubwa wa machapisho; pili, katika karne ya 19, kuchukua nafasi ya mashine ya uchapishaji ya mkono ya mtindo wa Gutenberg kwa mashine inayoendeshwa kwa nguvu ya mvuke kuliwezesha uchapishaji na usambazaji kwa kiwango cha viwanda. Uzalishaji, usambazaji na matumizi ya maarifa kuhusu Palestina/Ardhi Takatifu kwa kiwango hiki cha viwanda, ambacho hakijawahi kushuhudiwa, uliungwa mkono na mapinduzi ya upigaji picha ya miaka ya 1830, ambayo yalianza kuzalisha picha nyingi za Ardhi Takatifu kwa masoko ya Ulaya, Marekani na Urusi.

the Renaissance period and the 19th century. These two periods experienced two major European technological revolutions with considerable impact on the Palestine literature: first, the Renaissance printing revolution press from the late 15th century introduced the era of mass circulation of publications and second, in the 19th century the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press by the steam-powered press allowed printing and publication on an industrial scale. This unprecedented industrial scale of production, circulation and consumption of Palestine/Holy Land knowledge was aided by the photographic revolution of the 1830s which began to produce masses of images of the Holy Land for the European, American and Russian markets.

Mifano michache ya fasihi nyingi kuhusu Palestina, ikiwa ni pamoja na machapisho ya kijiografia na ya "safari katika" Palestina katika karne ya 19, katika lugha kadhaa kuu za Ulaya, ni pamoja na: John Lewis Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (1822); Thomas Wright, Early Travels in Palestine (1848), ambayo inajumuisha simulizi za mahujaji wa mwanzo waliokwenda Palestina; na Leslie Porter, A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine: Including an Account of the Geography, History, Antiquities, Inhabitants of these Countries, Part 1 and 2 (1858, 1868); Vital Cuinet, Syrie, Liban et Palestine: géographie administrative, statistique, descriptive et raisonnée (1896); Titus Tobler, Dritte Wanderung nach Palästina (1859); na Bibliographia Geographica Palestinae (1867). John Murray, mmoja wa wachapishaji muhimu na wenye ushawishi mkubwa nchini Uingereza, alichapisha kitabu cha Porter, A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine, ambacho kinaishughulikia Palestina kama nchi tofauti. Kitabu hiki kinaelezea Palestina katika sehemu kuu tatu: Sehemu ya I "Palestina-Yerusalemu" na "Palestina ya Kusini", ambayo inajumuisha miji kuanzia Gaza hadi Jaffa, na Sehemu ya 2 yenye sehemu mbili:

A few examples of the large amounts of Palestine literature, including geographic publications on and ‘travels in’ Palestine in the 19th century, in several key European languages, include John Lewis Burckhardt’s Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (1822); Thomas Wright’s Early Travels in Palestine (1848), which consists of accounts of the early pilgrims to Palestine, and Leslie Porter’s A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine: Including an Account of the Geography, History, Antiquities, Inhabitants of these Countries, Part 1 and 2 (1858, 1868), Vital Cuinet, Syrie, Liban et Palestine: géographie administrative, statistique, descriptive et raisonnée (1896); Titus Tobler’s Dritte Wanderung nach Palästina (1859); and Bibliographia Geographica Palestinae (1867). John Murray, one of the most important and influential publishers in Britain, produced Porter’s A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine, which treats Palestine as a separate country. This book describes Palestine in three major sections: Part I ‘Palestine-Jerusalem’ and ‘Southern Palestine’, which includes cities from Gaza to Jaffa, and Part 2 with two sections:

(a) ‘Palestina ya Kaskazini’, ambayo ilijumuisha Galilaya na Dameski, na (b) ‘Syria ya Kaskazini’. Kwa mtindo kama huo, Jiografia ya Palestina ya Joseph Meen:

(a) ‘Northern Palestine’, which included the Galilee and Damascus, and (b) ‘Northern Syria’. In a similar vein, Joseph Meen’s Geography of Palestine:

Vitabu vya Kihistoria na Maelezo (1865) na The Geography of Palestine, or, the Holy Land, Including Phoenicia and Philistia cha Walter McLeod (1856) vilikuwa mfano wa vitabu vingi kuhusu jiografia ya kihistoria ya Palestina vilivyochapishwa Uingereza na Ulaya katikati ya karne ya 19. Machapisho haya ya jiografia ya kihistoria yalichukulia Palestina kama nchi tofauti na kitengo cha kijiografia-kisiasa kilichojitenga na Syria, Misri na Arabia. Inafaa pia kutaja kwamba neno 'Southern Syria', lililojitokeza kwa muda mfupi mwanzoni mwa karne ya 20, halikuwahi kutajwa katika machapisho haya.

Historical and Descriptive (1865) and Walter McLeod’s The Geography of Palestine, or, the Holy Land, Including Phoenicia and Philistia (1856) were typical of the large number of books on the historical geography of Palestine published in Britain and Europe in the middle of the 19th century. These historical-geographic publications treated Palestine as a distinct country and a geo-political unit separate from Syria, Egypt and Arabia. It is also worth pointing out that the expression ‘Southern Syria’, which appeared briefly in the early 20th century, was never mentioned in these publications.

Katika nusu ya pili ya karne ya 19, tafsiri za makala na vitabu kwenda Kiarabu zilianza kutofautisha wazi kati ya Syria na Palestina.

Crucially, in the second half of the 19th century translations of articles and books into Arabic began to distinguish clearly between Syria and Palestine.

Kwa mfano, mwaka 1883 makala ya George Edward Post yenye kichwa ‘Plants of Syria and Palestine’ ilichapishwa katika jarida la Kiarabu al-Muqtataf (1883), ambalo lilianzishwa mwaka 1876 katika Chuo cha Kiprotestanti cha Syria, leo kinachojulikana kama Chuo Kikuu cha Marekani cha Beirut, kabla ya kuhamia Cairo mwaka 1884. Tofauti hiyo hiyo pia inapatikana katika toleo la Kiarabu la kitabu cha Post Nabat Suriyya wa-Filastin wa-al-Qatr al-Misri wa-Bawadiha (Flora of Syria and Palestine and Sinai:

For instance, in 1883 George Edward Post’s article ‘Plants of Syria and Palestine’ was published in the Arabic journal al-Muqtataf (1883), which was founded in 1876 at the Syrian Protestant College, today the American University of Beirut, before moving to Cairo in 1884. The same distinction is also found in the Arabic version of Post’s Nabat Suriyya wa-Filastin wa-al-Qatr al-Misri wa-Bawadiha (Flora of Syria and Palestine and Sinai:

Kitabu cha Mimea ya Maua na Feri Asili na Zilizoletwa kutoka Taurus hadi Ras Muhammad na kutoka Bahari ya Mediterania hadi Jangwa la Syria) (1896), ishara kwamba kufikia miaka ya 1880 machapisho ya Kiulaya kuhusu jiografia ya Palestina na tafsiri zake za Kiarabu yalikuwa yanaanza kuathiri mitazamo ya kisasa ya Waarabu kuhusu Palestina (Foster 2013) na dhana inayobadilika kwamba Palestina ilikuwa kitengo tofauti cha kijiografia na kisiasa.

A Handbook of the Flowering Plants and Ferns Native and Naturalized from the Taurus to Ras Muhammad and from the Mediterranean Sea to the Syrian Desert) (1896), an indication that by the 1880s European publications on Palestine geography and their translations into Arabic were beginning to have an impact on modern Arab perceptions of Palestine (Foster 2013) and the evolving notion that Palestine was a distinct geo-political unit.

Kazi ya Guy Le Strange, mtaalamu wa lugha ya Kiarabu na Kiajemi katika Chuo Kikuu cha Cambridge, kuhusu jiografia ya kihistoria ya Palestina chini ya Uislamu katika Zama za Kati, iliongeza upeo mwingine kwa shauku ya Waingereza juu ya Palestina katika nusu ya pili ya karne ya 19. Kitabu cha Guy Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems; A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650

The work of Guy Le Strange, a scholar of Arabic and Persian at Cambridge University, on the historical geography of Palestine under Islam in the Middle Ages, added another dimension to British preoccupation with Palestine in the second half of the 19th century. Guy Le Strange’s Palestine under the Moslems; A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650

Hadi 1500. Imetafsiriwa kutoka katika Kazi za Wanajiografia wa Kiarabu wa Zama za Kati, ilichapishwa London na Kamati ya Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) mwaka 1890. PEF, iliyoanzishwa mwaka 1865, tayari ilikuwa imeelekeza nguvu zake kwenye Palestina/Ardhi Takatifu. Watangulizi wengine wa PEF pia walielekeza nguvu zao kwenye Palestina/Ardhi Takatifu na walifanya tofauti wazi kati ya Palestina na Syria. Hii ilijumuisha Jumuiya ya Kiinjilisti ya Uingereza ya Palestina (British Palestine Association), iliyoanzishwa miaka sitini kabla ya PEF. Kuundwa kwa Jumuiya ya Palestina mwanzoni mwa karne ya 19 kulichochewa na vita vya Napoleon na uvamizi wa Wafaransa wa 1798‒1801 na kampeni yao nchini Misri na Palestina. Kushindwa kwa Napoleon huko Acre mwaka 1799 ni mojawapo ya matukio yanayojulikana zaidi katika historia ya kisasa ya dunia. Kuanguka kwa kuzingirwa kwake kwa Acre – mji unaojulikana barani Ulaya kama mji mkuu wa mwisho wa Ufalme wa Kikristo wa Kilatini wa Yerusalemu wa Vita vya Msalaba – mwaka 1799, kukiungwa mkono kikamilifu na nguvu ya baharini ya Uingereza, kulianzisha enzi mpya ya ushiriki wa moja kwa moja wa Uingereza katika eneo hilo na mwanzo wa tofauti ya kidini-kisiasa ya Waingereza kati ya Palestina na Syria. Hili lilidhihirika katika shairi refu la kimapenzi-kiinjilisti la mwaka 1803, Palestine, lililotungwa na kasisi Reginald Heber, baadaye akajulikana kama Askofu wa Calcutta, kwa msaada wa Sir Walter Scott.

to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Mediaeval Arab Geographers, was published in London by the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) in 1890. The PEF, founded in 1865, had already focused on Palestine/ the Holy Land. Other antecedents to the PEF also focused on Palestine/the Holy Land and made a clear distinction between Palestine and Syria. This included the evangelical British Palestine Association, established sixty years before the PEF. The formation of the Palestine Association in the early 19th century had been spurred by the Napoleonic wars and the 1798‒1801 French invasion and campaign in Egypt and Palestine. Napoleon’s defeat at Acre in 1799 is one of the best-known episodes of modern world history. The collapse of his siege of Acre – the city known in Europe as the last capital of the Latin Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem – in 1799 with the full support of British maritime power ushered in a new era in British direct involvement in the region and the beginnings of British religio-political distinction between Palestine and Syria. This became evident in a long romantic-evangelical poem from 1803, Palestine, which was composed by a clergyman, Reginald Heber, later known as Bishop of Calcutta, with the help of Sir Walter Scott.

Shairi hilo maarufu lilisomwa katika ukumbi wa michezo wa London, na baadaye likachapishwa na kutungiwa muziki na mtunzi William Crotch, profesa wa muziki katika Chuo Kikuu cha Oxford. Ushiriki unaoongezeka wa wainjilisti wa Uingereza nchini Palestina pia ulidhihirika katika kubadilishwa jina kwa Chama cha Palestina, kilichoanzishwa mwaka 1805 muda mfupi baada ya Wafaransa kuondoka katika eneo hilo. Jamii hii awali ilianzishwa Machi 1805 chini ya jina la Jamii ya Siria. Mwezi mmoja baadaye, tarehe 24 Aprili 1805, waasisi wake waliamua kwamba Jamii ya Siria 'kuanzia sasa itaitwa Chama cha Palestina'. Chama cha Palestina kiliasisiwa na kuongozwa pamoja na William Richard Hamilton (1777–1859), mwanadiplomasia wa Uingereza, msafiri, mtafiti wa mambo ya kale na mtaalamu wa Misri ya kale, ambaye baadaye alihudumu kama Naibu Waziri wa Mambo ya Nje.

The popular poem was recited in London theatres and was later published, and set to music by the composer William Crotch, a professor of music at Oxford University. The increasing British evangelical involvement in Palestine also became evident in the renaming of the Palestine Association, which was established in 1805 shortly after the departure of the French from the region. This society had initially been founded in March 1805 under the name Syrian Society. A month later, on 24 April 1805, its founders decided that the Syrian Society ‘shall henceforth be denominated The Palestine Association’. The Palestine Association was co-founded and led by William Richard Hamilton (1777–1859), a British diplomat, traveller, antiquarian and Egyptologist who later served as Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs.

Chama hicho kilivunjwa rasmi mwaka 1834 na kuunganishwa katika Jumuiya ya Kifalme ya Jiografia (Silberman 1982; Kark and Goren 2011).

The Association was formally disbanded in 1834 and incorporated into the Royal Geographical Society (Silberman 1982; Kark and Goren 2011).

Kitabu cha Le Strange, *Palestine under the Moslems* (1890, 2010, 2014), kiliweka picha ya Dome of the Rock kwenye jalada lake na kilikuwa na ramani pamoja na michoro. Kazi yake, ambayo inatambulisha "wingi wa taarifa zilizofichwa katika matini za Kiarabu za wanajiografia na wasafiri Waislamu wa Zama za Kati" (Le Strange 1890: Preface), ilitoa maelezo ya kina ya Jund Filastin chini ya Uislamu, kwa kutegemea masimulizi ya mwanahistoria na mwanajiografia wa Kipalestina wa karne ya 10 kutoka Jerusalem, al-Maqdisi, na kazi yake, Ahsan al-Taqasim Fi Ma’rifat al-Aqalim (Mgawanyo Bora kwa Ujuzi wa Mikoa) (al-Maqdisi 1994, 2002). Le Strange alikuwa tayari ametafsiri kutoka Kiarabu kwenda Kiingereza na kuchapisha mwaka 1886 kazi maarufu ya al-Maqdisi chini ya kichwa *al-Mukaddasi’s Description of Syria and Palestine*. Kichwa hiki cha Le Strange pia kinasisitiza mgawanyo mkali wa kijiografia-kisiasa kati ya Palestina na Syria katika fikra za Ulaya za karne ya 19.

Le Strange’s Palestine under the Moslems (1890, 2010, 2014) placed the image of the Dome of the Rock on its cover and contained maps and illustrations. His work, which introduces ‘the mass of information which lies buried in the Arabic texts of the Moslem geographers and travellers of the Middle Ages’ (Le Strange 1890: Preface), provided vivid descriptions of Jund Filastin under Islam on the basis of the accounts of the 10th century Palestinian Jerusalemite historian and geographer al-Maqdisi and his work, Ahsan al-Taqasim Fi Ma’rifat al-Aqalim (The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions) (al-Maqdisi 1994, 2002). Le Strange had already translated from Arabic into English and published in 1886 al-Maqdisi’s famous work under the title al-Mukaddasi’s Description of Syria and Palestine, and this title by Le Strange also underlines the sharp geo-political distinction between Palestine and Syria in European thinking in the 19th century.

Mgawanyo wazi kati ya Palestina/Ardhi Takatifu, kwa upande mmoja, na Syria/al-Sham, kwa upande mwingine, haukuwa wa Wazungu peke yao; kama tulivyokwisha kuona, katika karne ya 17 mwandishi Mwislamu wa Kipalestina Salih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtashi alifanya mgawanyo huo katika kazi yake *The Complete Knowledge in Remembering the Holy Land and Its Boundaries and Remembering Palestine and its Boundaries and al-Sham* (1695‒1696).

The clear distinction between Palestine/the Holy Land, on the one hand, and Syria/al-Sham, on the other, was not exclusively European; as we have already seen, in the 17th century Palestinian Muslim author Salih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtashi made that distinction in his work The Complete Knowledge in Remembering the Holy Land and Its Boundaries and Remembering Palestine and its Boundaries and al-Sham (1695‒1696).

Vikundi vilivyofuatana vya mahujaji wa Kikristo wa zama za kati na wa kisasa vilirejelea mgawanyo wa kijiografia wa Palestina, Shamu na Arabia. Kwa wasomi wa Kipalestina waliofahamu vizuri maandishi ya kale ya Kiislamu ya Kiarabu kuhusu Palestina na al-Sham, pamoja na machapisho ya Kiulaya kuhusu Palestina, na kwa Wapalestina wa kawaida waliokuwa wakiyatazama kwa karibu misafara ya mahujaji wa Kiulaya na Kirusi, tofauti hii kati ya Palestina/Ardhi Takatifu na Shamu ilichukuliwa kuwa jambo la kawaida. Shule za Terra Sancta, zinazofadhiliwa na Wakatoliki wa Roma na kuendeshwa kutoka vituo vya mijini vya Palestina ambako Wakristo wengi wa Kipalestina waliishi, zilianza kuonekana Nazareti, Yafa, Bethlehemu na Yerusalemu. Kwa Wapalestina waliosoma katika shule za Kiulaya na Kirusi nyumbani au ugenini, utengenezaji wa "maarifa" ya Kiulaya kuhusu jiografia ya kihistoria ya Palestina/Ardhi Takatifu, pamoja na kuongezeka kwa balozi za Kiulaya katika Palestina, pia ulikuwa jambo la kuvutia sana na la wasiwasi fulani. Kuanzia katikati ya karne ya 19, kwa kuboreka kwa mawasiliano na kuanzishwa kwa balozi kadhaa za Kiulaya katika Palestina, "Grand Tour" ya karne ya 18 – safari ya jadi iliyofanywa hasa na vijana wa tabaka la juu wenye mali kupitia miji ya Italia – ilibadilishwa na "Cook Tour" (iliyopangwa na Thomas Cook): utalii wa watu wa tabaka la kati uliokuwa wa wingi mapema na safari za "Ugiriki, Palestina na Misri". Thomas Cook alipanga Kaiser Wilhelm II wa Ujerumani atembelee Palestina mwaka 1898. "Cook's Tour" na utalii wa Ardhi Takatifu wa Thomas Cook pia ulizaa machapisho mengi kwa lugha nyingi za Kiulaya kuhusu "jiografia ya Palestina" na Ardhi Takatifu, mengi yakiwa pia yanapatikana kwa wasomi wa Kipalestina na maafisa wa Dola ya Ottoman. Kwa kiwango cha watu wa kawaida, utalii wa wingi wa Wazungu huko Palestina uliathiri lugha ya kienyeji ya Wapalestina na, kwa muda, ukaingiza maneno mengi ya Kifaransa na Kiitaliano katika Kiarabu cha Kipalestina – maneno kama hotel (otel), chauffeur, douche, beton (baton), mode (moda), canapé (canabai), salon, balcon (balconeh), billet (bolet), farmacia (farmashiyyah), souvenir, ascenseur, (ascensel), dossier (dusiyyeh), automobile, Benzina (banzin) na garage (karaj) ambayo bado yanatumika sana hadi leo.

Also, successive generations of medieval and modern Christian pilgrims referred to geographical subdivision of Palestine, Syria and Arabia. For educated local Palestinians, familiar with both classical Arab Islamic writings on Palestine and al-Sham and European publications on Palestine, and for ordinary Palestinians observing the caravans of European and Russian pilgrims at close quarters, this distinction between Palestine/the Holy Land and Syria would be taken for granted. Western-funded, Roman Catholic Terra Sancta schools based in the urban centres of Palestine where most Palestinian Christians resided began to appear in Nazareth, Jaffa, Bethlehem and Jerusalem, and for Palestinians educated in the European and Russian schools at home or abroad the production of the European ‘knowledge’ on the historical geography of Palestine/the Holy Land as well as the mushrooming of European consulates in Palestine would also be a matter of great interest and some concern. From the mid-19th century, with the improvement of communication and establishment of several European consulates in Palestine, the ‘Grand Tour’ of the 18th century – the traditional trip undertaken by mainly upper class European young men of means through Italian cities – was replaced by the ‘Cook Tour’ (organised by Thomas Cook): middle class early mass tourism and travels in ‘Greece, Palestine and Egypt’. Thomas Cook arranged for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II to visit Palestine in 1898. The ‘Cook’s Tour’ and Thomas Cook Holy Land Tourism also spawned numerous publications in many European languages on the ‘geography of Palestine’ and the Holy Land, many of which were also accessible to members of the educated Palestinian elite and Ottoman officials. On a popular level, European mass tourism in Palestine impacted on the Palestinian vernacular and, over time, introduced many French and Italian words into Palestinian Arabic – words such as hotel (otel), chauffeur, douche, beton (baton), mode (moda), canapé (canabai), salon, balcon (balconeh), billet (bolet), farmacia (farmashiyyah), souvenir, ascenseur, (ascensel), dossier (dusiyyeh), automobile, Benzina (banzin) and garage (karaj) still commonly in use today.

Katika karne ya 19 na mwanzoni mwa karne ya 20, sehemu kubwa ya maarifa yaliyozalishwa na Wazungu kuhusu Palestina, katika vitabu na shajara za safari, ilitawaliwa na Mafunzo ya Biblia, Jiografia ya Maandiko, na Uorientalist ambamo Waarabu wa Palestina walionyeshwa kama "kiambatisho rahisi cha mandhari ya kale ya Biblia … kama "vivuli" vya zamani za mbali, "visukuku" vilivyosimama katika wakati" (Kamel 2014, 2015), huku wakulima wa Kiarabu (fallahin)

In the 19th century and early 20th century much of the European knowledge production on Palestine in books and travel diaries remained dominated by Biblical Studies, Scriptural Geography, Orientalism in which the Palestinian Arabs were portrayed as a ‘simple appendix to the ancient Biblical [landscape] … as “shadows” of the far- off past, “fossils” suspended in time’ (Kamel 2014, 2015), while the Arab fallahin (peasants)

za Palestina ya kisasa zilionekana kama alama za "Wayahudi wa Biblia" (Gil, E.

of modern Palestine were viewed as symbols of the ‘biblical Jews’ (Gil, E.

2006). Hata hivyo, tangu katikati ya karne ya 19, mwanaakiolojia wa Biblia na mtaalamu wa jiografia ya Maandiko Edward Robinson (1794‒1863), akiandika mapema miaka ya 1860 wakati safari za Wazungu kwenda Levant zilipoenea, anaeleza kwamba ‘Palestina, au Palestina, sasa ndilo jina lililozoeleka zaidi kwa Nchi Takatifu’ (Robinson, E. 1865: 15; angalia pia Robinson 1841; na Robinson et al. 1860).

2006). However, as early as the mid-19th century, biblical archaeologist and scriptural geographer Edward Robinson (1794‒1863), writing in the early 1860s when travel by Europeans to the Levant became widespread, notes ‘Palestine, or Palestina, now the most common name for the Holy Land’ (Robinson, E. 1865: 15; see also Robinson 1841; and Robinson et al. 1860).

Uchunguzi huu pia unadhihirika wazi katika kazi ya Victor Guérin yenye juzuu saba, Description géographique, historique et archéologique de la Palestine (1868‒1880; pia Guérin 1881–1883). Mnamo miaka ya 1860, Waingereza walikuwa wameanzisha Palestine Exploration Fund, ambayo ilifadhili Survey of Western Palestine na kuandaa safari za kijiografia za kutengeneza ramani huko Palestina. PEF ilikuwa mfano wa kawaida wa 'learned societies' zilizoanzishwa nchini Uingereza, na ilihusika na kugeuza mawazo na nadharia za himaya kuwa fikra za Kiorientalisti zilizojificha chini ya sura ya kisayansi na hoja zake, jambo lililochangia kuunda sera ya Uingereza na nia yake, ambayo kilele chake ni Tamko la Balfour la tarehe 2 Novemba 1917. Moja ya sababu kuu za kisiasa za PEF ilionekana wazi kutoka kwenye chapisho lake lenyewe: Names and Places in the Old and New Testament and Apocrypha: With their Modern Identifications (Palestine Exploration Fund 1889). Palestine Exploration Fund ilitaja zaidi ya majina 1150 ya maeneo yanayohusiana na Agano la Kale na 162

This observation is also evident from Victor Guérin’s seven-volume Description géographique, historique et archéologique de la Palestine (1868‒1880; also Guérin 1881–1883). In the 1860s, the British had set up the Palestine Exploration Fund, which sponsored the Survey of Western Palestine and mounted geographical map-making expeditions in Palestine. The PEF was a typical example of the ‘learned societies’ founded in Britain and was responsible for processing the empire’s notions and theories into pseudo-scientific Orientalist thinking and argumentation, leading to the shaping of British policy and intentionality which finds its apotheosis in the Balfour Declaration of 2 November 1917. One of the main political motives of the PEF was clear from its own publication: Names and Places in the Old and New Testament and Apocrypha: With their Modern Identifications (Palestine Exploration Fund 1889). The Palestine Exploration Fund listed more than 1150 place names related to the Old Testament and 162

Inahusiana na Agano Jipya. Utawala wa Waingereza nchini Palestina ulianza rasmi tarehe 11 Desemba 1917 wakati Jenerali Allenby alipoingia rasmi katika Mji Mkongwe wa Yerusalemu. Muda mfupi baada ya uvamizi wa kijeshi wa Waingereza nchini Palestina, mamlaka za Uingereza zilianza kukusanya taarifa za majina ya mahali kutoka kwa wakazi wa kiasili wa Palestina. Mvuto wa Wazungu kwa 'majina ya mahali katika Biblia' na kwa Yerusalemu, pamoja na kukua kwa 'Masomo ya Biblia' barani Ulaya na Marekani, kulikuwa na athari fulani katika fikra rasmi za Waothmani na katika maandishi ya baadhi ya waandishi wa kizalendo wa Kipalestina. Hao wa mwisho walijaribu kujenga mjadala wa kupinga Uzayuni kwa kuieleza Utaifa wa kisasa wa Kipalestina kwa mtazamo wa kiasili, uliojikita katika mizizi ya Kanaani na 'Nchi ya Kanaani' (ona, kwa mfano, Cattan 1969: 3‒4).

related to the New Testament. British rule in Palestine formally began on 11 December 1917 when General Allenby officially entered the Old City of Jerusalem. Shortly after the British military occupation of Palestine, the British authorities set out to gather toponymic information from the local Palestinian inhabitants. The European preoccupation with ‘biblical place names’ and with Jerusalem, and the European and American growth of ‘Bible Studies’, had some impact on official Ottoman thinking and on the writings of some Palestinian nationalist authors. The latter sought to construct a counter-Zionist discourse by couching modern Palestinian nationalism in primordialist terms, rooted in Canaanite roots and the ‘Land of Canaan’ (see, for instance, Cattan 1969: 3‒4).