Meskipun terjadi kemerosotan umum sebagaimana telah diuraikan di atas, sepanjang masa ini sesekali muncul beberapa ulama terkemuka yang menentang taqlid dan berani mengibarkan panji ijtihad. Mereka menyerukan kembali kepada akar agama, kepada sumber-sumber hukum Islam yang sejati, dan bersandar pada landasan-landasan tersebut di atas segalanya.

In spite of the general decay described above, there existed from time to time throughout this period a few outstanding scholars who opposed Taqleed and dared to raise the banner of Ijtihaad. They called for a return to the roots of the religion, to the true sources of Islamic law and to reliance on these foundations above all else.

Beberapa dari para pembaharu ini beserta kontribusi mereka diuraikan berikut ini.

Some of these reformers and their contributions are described hereafter.

Ahmad ibn Taymeeyah (1263-1328 M) bukanlah yang terdepan di antara para pembaru pada masa ini. Karena tantangannya terhadap status quo, banyak orang sezamannya yang menyatakannya murtad dan membuat penguasa memenjarakannya berulang kali. Namun, Ibn Taymeeyah adalah salah seorang ulama terbesar pada masanya. Pada awalnya, ia mempelajari Fiqih menurut Madzhab Hambali, tetapi ia tidak membatasi dirinya padanya. Ia mempelajari sumber-sumber hukum Islam secara mendalam dan menguasai seluruh ilmu-ilmu Islam yang dikenal pada masa itu.

Ahmad ibn Taymeeyah (1263-1328 CE) was not foremost among the reformers of this period. Because of his challenge of the status quo, many of his contemporaries declared him an apostate and had the authorities jail him repeatedly. Ibn Taymeeyah was, however, one of the greatest scholars of his time. Initially, he had studied Fiqh according to the Hambalee Madh-hab, but did not restrict himself to it. He studied the sources of Islamic law in depth and mastered all the Islamic sciences which were known at that time.

Selanjutnya, ia meneliti tulisan-tulisan berbagai aliran sesat yang telah memisahkan diri dari Islam, mempelajari kitab-kitab agama orang Kristen, orang Yahudi, dan berbagai aliran mereka, lalu menulis kritik yang panjang lebar terhadap semuanya. Ibnu Taimiyah juga ikut serta dalam jihad melawan bangsa Mongol yang telah menduduki provinsi-provinsi timur dan utara bekas negara ‘Abbasiyah, dan pada masa itu mereka termasuk ulama Islam terbesar pada zamannya. Mereka meneruskan kepada generasi berikutnya panji ijtihad dan kembali kepada sumber-sumber murni Islam yang telah ia angkat. Di antara mereka adalah Ibnu Qayyim, seorang ulama besar dalam bidang fikih dan kritik hadis, dan Ibnu Katsir, seorang ahli dalam tafsir, sejarah, dan hadis.

Furthermore, he examined the writings of various sects which had broken off from islaam, studied the religious books of the Christians, the Jews and their various sects and wrote extensive critiques on all of them. Ibn Taymeeyah also took part in the Jihaad against the Mongols who had occupied the eastern and northern provinces of the former ‘Abbaasid state and were at that were among the greatest Islamic scholars of their time and carried on to the next generation the banner of Ijtihaad and a return to the pure sources of Islaam which he had raised. Among them was Ibn Qayyim, a great scholar in the fields of Fiqh and Hadeeth criticism and Ibn Katheer, a master in Tafseer, History and Hadeeth.

Muhammad ibn ‘Alee ash-Shawkaanee (1757-1835 M)

Muhammad ibn ‘Alee ash-Shawkaanee (1757-1835 CE)

lahir di dekat kota Shawkaan di Yaman, juga termasuk di antara para pembaharu pada masa ini. Asy-Syawkaanee mempelajari fikih menurut madzhab Zaidiyah192 dan menjadi salah seorang ulamanya yang terkemuka.

born near the town of Shawkaan in Yemen, was also among the reformers to this Period. Ash-Shawkaanee studied Fiqh according to the Zaydee Madh-hab192 and became one of its outstanding scholars.

Kemudian ia mendalami kajian hadits pada masanya secara mendalam. Pada tahap ini ia melepaskan diri dari madzhab dan mulai berijtihad secara mandiri. Ia menulis sejumlah karya dalam fiqih dan dasar-dasarnya, di mana masalah-masalah yang dikaji dari sudut pandang semua madzhab disimpulkan dengan solusi yang semata-mata didasarkan pada dalil-dalil yang paling sahih dan argumen-argumen yang paling meyakinkan. Imam asy-Syaukani berpendapat bahwa taqlid itu haram, dan ia menulis sejumlah kitab tentang topik ini, misalnya Al-Qawlul Mufid fi Hukmit Taqlid. Akibatnya, ia pun mendapat serangan dari sebagian besar ulama pada masanya.193

He then went into an in-depth study of the Hadeeth of his time. At this point he freed him self of the Madh-hab and began making independent Ijtihaad. He wrote a number of works in Fiqh and its fundamentals in which issues studied from the points of view of all the Madh-habs were concluded with solutions based solely on the most accurate proofs and the most convincing arguments. Imaam ash-Shawkaanee took the position that Taqleed was Haraam and wrote a number of books on the topic, for example, Al-Qawl alMufeed fee Hukm at-Taqleed. Consequently, he also came under attack from most of the scholars of his time.193

Reformis lain yang patut disebut adalah ulama besar Ahmad ibn ‘Abdur-Raheem, yang lebih dikenal sebagai Shah Walee Allaah Dihlawee (1703–1762 M). Ia lahir di anak benua India, tempat taqlid mungkin paling merajalela. Setelah menguasai berbagai ilmu keislaman, ia menyerukan dibukanya kembali pintu ijtihad dan dipersatukannya kembali mazhab-mazhab fiqih. Dalam upayanya mengkaji ulang prinsip-prinsip Islam dan menelusuri atas dasar otoritas apa mazhab-mazhab fiqih menetapkan ketentuan hukumnya, Shah Walee Allaah menghidupkan kembali kajian hadits. Meskipun ia tidak sampai menolak mazhab-mazhab fiqih yang ada, ia tetap berpendapat bahwa setiap orang bebas memilih suatu keputusan yang berbeda dari keputusan yang diambil oleh mazhab yang ia anut sendiri, apabila ia yakin bahwa masalah tersebut lebih kuat dikukuhkan oleh hadits.194

Another noteworthy reformer was the great schoar Ahmad ibn ‘Abdur-Raheem better known as Shah Walee Allaah Dihlawee (1703-1762 CE). He was born in the Indian sub-continent where Taqleed was, perhaps, most rampant. After he had mastered the various Islamic sciences, he called for the re-opening of the door of Ijtihaad and the re-unification of the schools of Fiqh. In this efforts to re-examine Islamic principles and to find out on what authority the legal schools based their regulations, Shah Walee Allaah rejuvenated the study of Hadeeth. Although he did not go so far as to reject the existing Fiqh schools, nevertheless he tought that everyone was free to choose a particular decision different from that taken by the school to which he belonged himself, if he was convinced that the case was better confirmed by Hadeeth.194

Namun demikian, keadaan kemunduran dan kemandekan secara keseluruhan terus berlanjut hingga hari ini, meskipun ada upaya para pemikir modern seperti Jamaal ad-Deen al-Afghaanee (1839-1897 M) yang berkeliling ke seluruh dunia Islam menyerukan pembaruan. Jamaal ad-Deen pergi ke India, Makkah, dan Konstantinopel, dan akhirnya menetap di Mesir. Ia menyerukan kebebasan berpikir dalam bidang politik, agama, dan ilmu pengetahuan, serta mengecam taqlid dan korupsi negara. Gagasan-gagasan Jamaal ad-Deen ini dianggap ekstrem oleh sebagian orang. Misalnya, ia mengangkat akal manusia beserta kesimpulan logisnya ke tingkat yang setara dengan Wahyu Ilahi. Niatnya juga menjadi dicurigai karena keterlibatannya dengan gerakan Masonik, yang pada waktu itu sedang mendirikan cabang-cabang baru di Timur Tengah.195

However the over all state of degeneration and stagnation has continued until today, despite the efforts of modern thinkers like Jamaal ad-Deen al-Afghaanee (1839-1897 CE) who traveled throughout the Muslim world calling for reform. Jamaal ad-Deen traveled to India, Makkah, and Constantinople, settling finally in Egypt. He called for free political, religious and scientific thought and denounced Taqleed and state corruption. Jamaal ad-Deen thought these ideas at the University of Jamaal ad-Deen’s ideas were extremist. For example, he elevated the human mind and its logical deductions to a level equal to that of Divine Revelation. His intentions also became suspect due to his involvement with the Masonic movement which was at that time establishing new branches in the Middle-East.195

Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905 M) adalah salah satu murid Afghaanee yang paling terkenal. Di bawah pengaruh Afghaanee dan Ibn Muhammad ‘Abduh, Taqleed serta para pendukungnya diserang secara sistematis. Namun, karena kecenderungan Muhammad ‘Abduh kepada modernisme ekstrem, ia akhirnya menyimpang dalam beberapa penafsiran dan fatwa hukumnya. Sebagai contoh, dalam Tafsir Al-Qur’an-nya ia menyatakan bahwa mukjizat para Nabi tidak dilakukan langsung oleh Tuhan melalui kekuatan alam. Baginya, kawanan burung yang menjatuhkan batu-batu tanah liat kepada pasukan Abrahah dan gajahnya ketika mereka menyerang Ka’bah hanyalah mikroba yang beterbangan di udara dan menyebarkan penyakit di antara mereka. Demikian pula, ia mengeluarkan fatwa yang membolehkan kaum Muslimin terlibat dalam transaksi bisnis yang mengandung riba. Ia mendasarkan fatwa ini pada kaidah fiqh bahwa keadaan darurat yang sangat mendesak membuat yang haram menjadi boleh. Kekeliruan fatwanya terletak pada kenyataan bahwa fiqh secara khusus mendefinisikan keadaan darurat yang sangat mendesak sebagai menyangkut perkara hidup dan mati atau hilangnya anggota tubuh, dan hal itu sama sekali tidak berlaku dalam transaksi bisnis. Murid utama Muhammad ‘Abduh, Muhammad Rashed Ridaa (w. 1935), melanjutkan serangan gurunya terhadap Taqleed, tetapi menolak sebagian besar kelebihan gurunya. Namun, murid-murid lain Muhammad ‘Abduh menjadi inti gerakan modernis ekstrem dan menyimpang dalam banyak hal, bahkan lebih jauh daripada guru mereka. Sebagai contoh, muridnya Qaasim Ameen (wafat 1908) adalah orang pertama yang melancarkan serangan keras terhadap poligami, kemudahan talak dalam Islam, dan penggunaan cadar.

Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849-1905 CE) was among Afghaanee’s most famous students. Under the influence of Afghaanee and Ibn Muhammad ‘Abduh, and Taqleed and its supporters were systematically attacked. But, due to Muhammad ‘Abduh’s leaning toward extreme modernism, he eventually deviated in some of his interpretations and legal rulings. For example, in his Tafseer of the Qur’aan he Prophets of directly performed by God through the forces of nature. To him the flocks of birds which dropped clay pebbles on the army of Abrahah and his elephant during their attack on the Ka’bah were simply airborne microbes which spread disease among them. Likewise, he made a Fatwaa allowing Muslims to be involved in business transactions involving interest. He based this ruling on the Fiqh principle that dire necessity makes the forbidden allowable. The fallacy of his ruling lay in the fact that Fiqh specifically defines dire necessity as involving matters of life and death or loss of limb, and this was simply not the case where business transactions are concerned. Muhammad ‘Abduh’s main student, Muhammad Rashed Ridaa (d. 1935), carried on his mentor’s attack on Taqleed, but rejected most of his teacher’s excesses. However, other students of Muhammad ‘Abduh became the nucleus of the extreme modernist movement and deviated in many areas even more than their teacher. For example, his student Qaasim Ameen (died 1908) was the first to make a vehement attack on polygamy, the simplicity of Islamic divorce and the use of the veil.

Ulama lain pada abad kedua puluh, seperti Hassan al-Bannaa (wafat 1949), pendiri gerakan Ikhwaan Muslimoon, Sayyid Abul-A'laa Mawdudi (1903-1979), pendiri gerakan Jama'at Islami, dan yang lebih baru, ahli hadits besar masa kita, Naasir ad-Deen al-Albaanee, telah mengangkat panji Kebangkitan Islam dan menyerukan penyatuan Madzhab.196 Namun hingga hari ini, mayoritas ulama tetap teguh terikat pada Islam sektarian dalam bentuk salah satu dari empat Madzhab.

Other scholars of the twentieth century, such as Hassan alBannaa (d.1949), founder of the Ikhwaan Muslimoon movement Sayyid, Abul-A’laa Mawdudi (1903-1979), founder of the Jama’at Islami movement, and more recently the great Hadeeth scholar of our era, Naasir ad-Deen al-Albaanee have picked up the banner of Islamic Revival and have called for the unfication of the Madhhabs.196 But, to this day, the majority of scholars remain firmly bound to sectarian Islaam in the form of one of the four Madh-habs.

Dengan melakukan hal itu, mereka tanpa disadari turut melanggengkan perpecahan di tengah umat Islam. Tampaknya juga tidak ada banyak harapan bahwa proses ini akan berakhir dalam waktu dekat; sebab, dengan sangat sedikit pengecualian, lembaga-lembaga pendidikan Islam masa kini di seluruh dunia Muslim justru secara aktif menyebarkan pandangan sektarian tentang Islam.

In doing so, they unknowingly perpetuate division among the ranks of the Muslim nation. Nor does there appear to be much hope for an end to this process in the near future; for, with very few exceptions, present day Islamic institutions of learning throughout the Muslim world actively propagate a sectarian view of Islaam.

Memang benar bahwa fikih perbandingan kini mendapat tempat yang menonjol dalam kurikulum lembaga-lembaga tersebut, dan kajian hadis telah menjadi lebih populer dibandingkan hanya seratus tahun yang lalu.

It is true that comparative Fiqh is now being given a prominent place in the syllabuses of these institutions, and the study of Hadeeth has become more popular than it was only a century ago.

Namun kenyataannya, dua subjek yang berpotensi dinamis dan memperbarui ini telah dilemahkan oleh sistem pendidikan Islam yang sektarian. Setiap universitas berpegang pada madzhab resmi negara tempat universitas itu berada, sehingga semua mata kuliah fiqih inti dalam silabus hukum Islam (yang disebut Syari'ah atau Ushul ad-Din) diajarkan menurut madzhab negara.197 Hal ini dilakukan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pemerintah setempat akan para hakim yang sesuai dengan madzhab yang digunakan dalam sistem hukum perdata negara. Sebagai contoh, Universitas al-Azhar di Mesir, institusi yang paling dihormati di dunia Islam, adalah satu-satunya universitas yang mengajarkan seluruh madzhab utama. Namun, mahasiswa yang masuk universitas diwajibkan menyatakan madzhab mereka, dan mereka ditempatkan dalam kelas yang sama. Sejak awal studi hingga lulus, seluruh dosen mereka berasal dari madzhab mereka sendiri. Akibatnya, pandangan madzhab-madzhab lain hanya dipelajari sebagai keanehan, dan kitab-kitab besar hadits lebih dibaca untuk mengharap berkah daripada untuk mencari pengungkapan kebenaran. Setiap kali pendapat yang berbeda ditemui dalam studi ini, dosen di lembaga sektarian memeriksanya secara dangkal dan menolaknya dengan argumen kuat yang ia susun untuk mendukung posisi madzhabnya. Dengan demikian, meskipun pendapat lain mungkin didukung oleh dalil yang sangat kuat, perlakuan dosen sektarian itu tidak memberinya pertimbangan yang layak diterimanya. Demikian pula, jika sebuah hadits yang kuat yang tampak bertentangan dengan posisi madzhab ditemui saat membaca kitab-kitab hadits, dosen itu either menafsirkannya ulang agar mendukung madzhabnya atau menjelaskannya dengan cerdik sehingga maknanya dibelokkan. Dan jika kedua cara itu tidak mungkin, serangkaian hadits lemah dikutip untuk mendukung posisi madzhab tanpa sedikit pun disebutkan bahwa hadits-hadits itu lemah. Dengan demikian, tampak bahwa terdapat lebih banyak hadits yang mendukung pendirian mazhab tersebut, dan para penuntut ilmu pun yakin akan kebenaran mazhab mereka.

But, the reality is that these two potentially dynamic and regenerative subjects have been defused by the sectarian system of Islamic education. Each university adheres to the official Madh-hab of the country in which it is situated and thus all the core Fiqh courses of the Islamic law Syllabus (called Sharee’ah or Usool al-Deen) are taught according to the state Madh-hab197. This is done to fulfill the local government’s need for judges who conform to the Madh-hab used in the civil law system of the state. For example, the University of al-Azhar in Egypt, the most venerated institution in the Muslim world, is the only university in which all of the major Madh-habs are taught. However, students entering the university are required to indicate their Madh-hab are placed in the same class. From the beginning of their studies until they graduate, all of their professors will be from their own Madh-hab. Accordingly, the positions of the other Madh-habs are studied merely as oddities, and the great books of Hadeeth are read more for the blessing than for the revelation of truth. Whenever a conflicting opinion is encountered in the course of these studies, the teacher in the sectarian institution examines it superficially and rejects it in the light of the compelling arguments, which he develops to support the position of his particular Madhhab. Thus, although other positions may be supported by very strong proofs, the sectarian teacher’s treatment denies them the consideration they deserve. Similarly, if a strong Hadeeth which appears contrary to the position taken by the Madh-hab is met while reading the books of Hadeeth, the teacher either re-interprets it to support his Madh-hab or he deftly explains it away. And if neither of the two is possible, a series of weak Hadeeths are quoted in support of the Madh-hab’s position without the slightest mention that they are weak. In that way, it appears that there is a greater number of Hadeeths supporting the Madh-hab’s position, and the students are convinced of the correctness of their Madh-hab.

1. Ijtihad dalam segala bentuknya dikesampingkan, dan taklid buta kepada salah satu dari empat mazhab diwajibkan atas seluruh kaum Muslimin.

1. Ijtihaad in all its forms was put aside, and the blind following (Taqleed) of one of the four Madh-habs was made compulsory on all Muslims.

2. Keempat madzhab menjadi benar-benar tidak sejalan, dan umat Islam pada dasarnya terpecah menjadi empat golongan keagamaan.

2. The four Madh-habs became totally incompatible and the Muslim Ummah was virtually split into four religeous sects.

3. Aktivitas keilmuan dibatasi pada penulisan syarah (komentar) atas karya-karya terdahulu serta mempromosikan posisi mazhab tertentu dari penulis, sebagaimana pada masa konsolidasi.

3. Scholarly activity was restricted to writing commentaries on previous works and promoting the position of the author’s particular Madh-hab as in the period of consolidation.

4. Ada upaya-upaya terpuji dari beberapa tokoh pembaharu untuk menghidupkan kembali sifat fiqih yang asli dan dinamis, namun usaha mereka ternyata tidak sebanding dengan tugas memberantas fanatisme mazhab yang telah begitu mendarah daging.

4. There were commendable attepts by certain reformers to revive the original and dynamic nature of Fiqh, but their efforts proved unequal to the task of eradicating Madh-hab fanaticism which had became so deeply ingrained.

5. Upaya kodifikasi hukum Islam memang dilakukan, tetapi hasilnya dipengaruhi oleh pandangan-pandangan sektarian, dan dengan datangnya kolonialisme Eropa, kodifikasi tersebut digantikan oleh kitab-kitab undang-undang Eropa.

5. Attempts at the codification of Islamic law were made, but the results suffered from sectarian views, and with the advent of European colonialism they were supplanted by European law codes.

6. Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, fanatisme madzhab sedikit berkurang berkat gerakan-gerakan reformis dan meluasnya pengajaran fiqih perbandingan di lembaga-lembaga pendidikan modern.

6. There has been some lessening of Madh-hab fanaticism in recent years as a result of the reformist movements and the wide-spread teaching of comparative Fiqh in modern institutions of learning.

7. Keadaan stagnasi dan kemunduran fikih serta keberadaan fanatisme mazhab terus berlanjut hingga saat ini.

7. The state of stagnation and decline of Fiqh and the existence of Madh-hab factionalism have continued until the present day.