Ɗaukakar ilimin ƙasa da taswirar Larabawa ta ci gaba har zuwa ƙarshen zamanin tsakiya, kuma a shekara ta 1154, a lokacin da Masarautar Crusaders ta Latin ta Urushalima ke kan kololuwar ƙarfinta, an ambaci Filastin a kan taswirar duniya a cikin babban littafin Larabci, Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi’khtirāq al-Afaq (wanda aka fassara da The Pleasure of Him who Longs to Cross the Horizons), wanda masanin ilimin ƙasa kuma mai yin taswira Bajandalusiye, Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165), mafi shahara a ilimin ƙasa a zamaninsa, ya rubuta. Wannan aiki, wanda ya shahara a harshen Latin da sunan Tabula Rogeriana (a Larabci: Kitab Rujar, Littafin Roger) da kuma Opus Geographicum, shi ne babban aikin al-Idrisi na bayanan ilimin ƙasa da kwatancin duniyar da aka sani a lokacin, kuma ya haɗa da taswirar duniya wacce ke nuna Filastin da rubutun Larabci, Filastin.

The glories of Arab geography and cartography continued well into the late Middle Ages and in 1154, at the height to the Latin Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, Palestine was mentioned on the world map of the Arabic magnum opus, Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi’khtirāq al-Afaq (translated as The Pleasure of Him who Longs to Cross the Horizons), produced by Andalusian Arab geographer and cartographer Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165), the foremost geographer of his age. Becoming famous in Latin as the Tabula Rogeriana (Arabic: Kitab Rujar, The Book of Roger) and Opus Geographicum, al-Idrisi’s masterpiece of geographical information and a description of the known world included a world map, showing Filastin in Arabic.

Idan aka yi la'akari da cewa al-Idrisi yana aiki shekaru da dama bayan nasarar Crusaders a Urushalima (an haife shi shekara guda bayan haka), sha'awar Falasdinu ta kai matsayi mafi girma a lokacin, kuma taswirori da adabin da suka hada da kasar sun kasance masu neman gaske.

Bearing in mind that al-Idrisi was working decades after the Crusaders’ victory in Jerusalem (he was born a year after), interest in Palestine was at an all-time high, and maps and literature including the country were sought after.

Al-Idrisi ya zauna a Palermo, wadda a lokacin ita ce babban birnin wata daular Bahar Rum mai tasowa, kuma cibiyar haɗuwar al'adun Kirista da Musulmi Larabawa, inda ya yi aiki a kan sharhohi da zane-zanen taswirar tsawon shekaru goma sha biyar a fadar Sarki Roger II na Normandy, wanda ya kafa Masarautar Sicily a rabin farkon karni na 12, mai gadon al'adu gauraye, wanda ya ba da umarnin a yi aikin kusan shekara ta 1138 (Houben 2002:

Al-Idrisi had settled in Palermo, then the capital of a rising Mediterranean power and a centre of Christian and Arab Muslim cultural convivencia, and had worked on the commentaries and illustrations of the map for fifteen years at the court of the Norman King Roger II, the founder of the Kingdom of Sicily in the first half of the 12th century, with a mixed cultural heritage, who commissioned the work around 1138 (Houben 2002:

102–104; Maqbul 1992). Al-Idrisi ya yi tafiye-tafiye masu yawa a Turai, Arewacin Afirka da Yammacin Asiya, kuma ya tattara bayanai daga matafiya, ma'aikatan jirgin ruwa da 'yan kasuwa Musulmi. Da yake an yi wahayi daga Taswirar Duniya ta Ptolemy (da aka tattauna a sama), Taswirar Duniya ta al-Idrisi ta fi ci gaba sosai, kuma tsawon ƙarni uku masu zuwa masana ilimin ƙasa sun ɗauki taswirarsa a matsayin mafi daidaito, suna kwafe ta ba tare da canza komai ba (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992; Edson 2007: 42‒43).

102‒104; Maqbul 1992). Al-Idrisi travelled extensively in Europe, North Africa and West Asia and gathered information from Muslim travellers, sailors and merchants. Inspired by Ptolemy’s Map of the World (discussed above), al-Idrisi’s Map of the World was far more advanced and for the next three centuries geographers treated his map as the most accurate and copied it without alteration (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992; Edson 2007: 42‒43).

An abridged Arabic version of Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi-Ikhtiraq al-Afaq was published in Rome in 1592 with the title De Geographia Universali (Maqbul 1992; al-Idrisi 1592). Printed by the academic Medici Press of Rome, this was one of the first Arabic books to be printed. (Hopkins and Levtzion 2000: Wani ɗan gajeren sigar Larabci ta Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi-Ikhtiraq al-Afaq an buga ta a Rome a shekarar 1592 da take De Geographia Universali (Maqbul 1992; al-Idrisi 1592). An buga wannan littafi a Medici Press, wata ɗakin buga littattafai ta jami'a a Rome, kuma yana ɗaya daga cikin littattafan Larabci na farko da aka buga.

An abridged Arabic version of Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi-Ikhtiraq al-Afaq was published in Rome in 1592 with title: De Geographia Universali (Maqbul 1992; al-Idrisi 1592). Printed by Rome’s academic Medic Press, this was one of the first Arabic books to be printed. (Hopkins and Levtzion 2000:

(104–131). Mafi cikakken rubutun Larabci, wanda ya ƙunshi taswirar duniya da dukkan taswirorin sassa saba'in, yana nan a Istanbul (Pinto 2006: 140).

104–131). The most complete Arabic manuscript, which includes the world map and all seventy sectional maps, is kept in Istanbul (Pinto 2006: 140).

Shekara ɗari da hamsin bayan an yi taswirar duniya ta Idrisi, an sake samun Falasdin a wata taswirar duniya, wannan lokacin ta Marino Sanudo (kimanin 1270– 1343), wani ɗan kasuwa daga Venice wanda ya yi tafiya zuwa Falasdin sau da dama kuma ya zana taswirori bisa tafiye-tafiyensa. Sanudo kuma babban mutum ne a harkokin jama'a kuma masanin ƙasa, wanda ya shahara sosai saboda ƙoƙarinsa na tsawon rayuwa na farfaɗo da Yaƙe-yaƙen Salibiyya na Latin bayan faɗuwar Acre, babban birnin ƙarshe na Masarautar Latin, a shekara ta 1291. Ga mutanen Venice, neman kuɗi, cinikayya ta teku da yaƙin Salibiyya zuwa Ƙasa Mai Tsarki sun tafi tare. Ba zato ba tsammani, tare da asarar dukiya mai yawa ta Acre (da yawancin gaɓar tekun Galili da Lebanon), Venetawa da abokan haɗin gwiwarsu na Turai sun rasa cinikayya mai riba, tashoshin jiragen ruwa na gida, dukiya mai yawa, unguwannin zama, coci-coci, gidajen ibada da ƙungiyoyin addini-soja da suka shahara kamar Templars, Hospitallers da Teutonic Knights da ke Acre. Zuwa shekara ta 1307, Sanudo ya rubuta wani littafi, Conditiones Terrae Sanctae, wanda a zahiri littafin jagora ne na dabaru don shirye-shiryen yaƙin Salibiyya da sake ƙwace Falasdin daga hannun Turai. An haɗa taswirar Acre a cikin littafin Sanudo (Edson 2004: 133). Haka kuma, wata taswirar duniya ta bayyana a yawancin rubuce-rubucen Sanudo na farkon ƙarni na 14.

A century and a half after Idrisi’s world map was produced, Palestine was found on another world map, this time by Marino Sanudo (c. 1270– 1343) a Venetian merchant who travelled to Palestine a number of times and drew maps based on his travels. Sanudo was also a public figure and geographer who became widely known for his lifelong attempts to revive the Latin Crusades following the fall of Acre, the last capital of the Latin Kingdom, in 1291. For the Venetians, money-making, maritime trade and crusading for the Holy Land went hand in hand. Suddenly, with the loss of the considerable wealth of Acre (and much of the Galilean and Lebanese coasts), the Venetians, and their European allies, had lost lucrative trade, local harbours, considerable material assets, residential quarters, churches, monasteries and the famous religio-military Orders such as the Templars, Hospitallers and Teutonic Knights in Acre. By 1307 Sanudo had written a book, Conditiones Terrae Sanctae, effectively a strategic manual for crusading schemes and for European reconquest of Palestine. A map of Acre was included in Sanudo’s book (Edson 2004: 133). Also, a world map appeared in most of Sanudo’s manuscripts of the early 14th century.

Masanin tarihi Evelyn Edson ya rubuta:

Historian Evelyn Edson writes:

Taswirar Gabashin Bahar Rum … wadda ke nuna babban fagen ayyuka na shirin yaƙin da Sanudo ya gabatar, haɗuwa ce ta taswirar teku da taswirar cikin ƙasa … An jera su a gefen kudancin Asiya Ƙarama, da gabar Falasɗinu da Masar da tsibirin Cyprus, akwai jerin sunayen tashoshin jiragen ruwa.

The map of the Eastern Mediterranean … which shows the main theatre of operations for Sanudo’s proposed campaign, is a combination of a marine chart and a map of the interior … Lined up along the southern coast of Asia Minor, and the shores of Palestine and Egypt and the island of Cyprus, is a series of names of ports.

A gabar gabar tekun Falasdinu, waɗannan suna tare da nuni na nisa cikin mil. A cikin ƙasa, ana nuna su a fili fiye da haka, manyan siffofi kamar koguna Tigris da Euphrates da ƙasashen Mesopotamia, Persia da Chaldea. (Edson 2004: 139)

On the coast of Palestine these are accompanied by indications of distances in miles. In the interior, much more vaguely indicated, are larger features such as the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the countries of Mesopotamia, Persia and Chaldea. (Edson 2004: 139)

Tsawon kusan ƙarni uku, malamai na ilimin ƙasa, masu zana taswira da masana tarihi na Larabawa da na Turai sun ɗauki taswirar duniya ta al-Idrisi a matsayin mafi daidaito, kuma sun kwafe ta ba tare da wani canji ba (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992:

For nearly three centuries al-Idrisi’s world map was treated by Arab and European geographers, cartographers and historians as the most accurate and they copied it without alteration (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992:

156‒174). A tsakiyar karni na 15, taswirar duniya ta Fra Mauro (ya rasu a 1464), wani masanin taswira kuma malamin addini dan kasar Italiya, wanda ya zauna a Jamhuriyar Venice amma kuma ya yi aiki ga sarakunan Portugal, ta maye gurbin taswirar al-Idrisi ta karni na 12. A lokacin kuruciyarsa, Mauro ya yi tafiye-tafiye masu yawa a matsayin dan kasuwa da soja, kuma ya saba da yankunan Gabas ta Tsakiya.

156‒174). In the mid-15th century the mappa mundi of Fra Mauro (died 1464), an Italian cartographer and monk who lived in the Republic of Venice but also worked for the Portuguese kings, came to replace al-Idrisi’s map from the 12th century. In his youth, Mauro had travelled extensively as a merchant and a soldier and became familiar with the Near East regions.

A shekarar 1450 Mauro ya kammala taswirar duniya, wadda ta zama taswira mafi cikakkiya kuma mafi daidaito ta duniya har zuwa lokacin. Daga cikin majiyoyin Mauro akwai marubutan zamanin dā da Lissafin Duniya na Ptolemy, da kuma masana taswira Larabawa da taswirorin al-Idrisi na karni na 12.

In 1450 Mauro completed a world map, which became the most detailed and accurate map of the world up to that time. Among Mauro’s sources we find classical authors and Ptolemy’s Geography as well as Arab cartographers and the 12th century maps of al-Idrisi.

Mauro's world map mentions Palaestina for religio-political and practical purposes. Just as al-Idrisi's map in the 12th century was commissioned by King Roger II of Sicily and served a trading Mediterranean Christian kingdom with religious connections to Palestine, Mauro's map was commissioned by King Alfonso V of Portugal and served the rising global Portuguese Empire. But the "land of Jesus" was central to the Italian monk and to Christian pilgrims to Terra Sancta. However, the size of Palestine/Terra Sancta is considerably reduced by having to accommodate all the other places on the map, and Mauro felt he had to apologise for this:

Mauro’s world map mentions Palaestina for religio-political and practical purposes. If al-Idrisi’s map in the 12th century was commissioned by King Roger II of Sicily and in the service of a trading Mediterranean Christian kingdom with religious connections to Palestine, Mauro’s map was commissioned by King Alfonso V of Portugal in the service of the rising global Portuguese Empire. But the ‘land of Jesus’ was central to the Italian monk and to Christian pilgrims to Terra Sancta. However, the size of Palestine/ Terra Sancta is considerably reduced by having to accommodate all the other places on the map and Mauro feels he had to apologise for this:

"Waɗanda suke da ilimi za su saka a nan cikin Idumea, Falasdinu da Galili abubuwan da ban nuna ba, kamar kogin Urdun, tekun Tibariya, Tekun Matattu da sauran wurare, saboda ba a sami isasshen wuri ba" (Edson 2007: 151).

‘Those who are knowledgeable would put here in Idumea, Palestine and Galilee things which I have not shown, such as the river Jordan, the sea of Tiberias, the Dead Sea and other places, because there was not enough room’ (Edson 2007: 151).

Juyin juya halin bugawa a zamanin Renaissance na Turai da yaɗuwar injin buga littattafai daga ƙarshen karni na 15 zuwa gaba sun kawo zamanin yaɗuwar ra'ayoyi a yawan jama'a, wanda ya yi tasiri sosai ga wakilcin Ƙasar Mai Tsarki/Falasɗinu a idon jama'a. A zamanin Renaissance na Turai da na Italiya, wakilcin Falasɗinu/Ƙasar Mai Tsarki a taswirori shi ma ya ƙaru sosai. Taswirar 'Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta' an buga ta a Florence kimanin shekara ta 1480, kuma an saka ta a cikin bugu mai faɗaɗa na Francesco Berlinghieri na Geographia (Ilimin Ƙasa) na Ptolemy. Berlinghieri, masani kuma jakada na Renaissance ɗan Italiya, shi ne Bature na zamani na farko da ya fassara, ya faɗaɗa, kuma ya sake buga ayyukan masanin ƙasa ɗan Girka na karni na 2. A bayyane yake cewa taswirar 'Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta' an dogara ne a kan taswirar Sanudo‒Vesconte na Falasɗinu, wadda Pietro Vesconte (wanda yake aiki tsakanin 1310 zuwa 1330) da Marino Sanudo suka samar, kuma aka fara bugawa a Venice kimanin shekara ta 1320. Vesconte ɗan Genoa ne, masanin taswira, masanin ƙasa kuma mai yin taswirorin tafiye-tafiyen ruwa wanda ya yi aiki a Venice. Haka kuma ya samar da taswirar duniya, littafin taswirorin ruwa, taswirar Falasɗinu da tsarin birnin Acre da Urushalima, domin a saka su a cikin littafin Marino Sanuto mai suna Liber secretorum fidelium cruces super terrae sanctae recuperatione et Conservatione, littafin da ya tattauna hanyoyin kasuwanci kuma aka rubuta shi domin ƙarfafa sabon yaƙin Crusade na Latin, yana mai ba da jagora don sake ƙwace Ƙasar Mai Tsarki da ƙarfin soji (Edson 2004: 139; Bagrow 2010: 69‒70). Duk da cewa a hankali ra'ayoyin sabbin yaƙe-yaƙen Crusade sun fara dusashewa, taswirar Sanudo‒Vesconte da taswirorin 'Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta' sun kasance an nufe su da nuna ikon Turai da kuma samar da hotunan wakilcin zamani na Falasɗinu ga Turawa har zuwa karni na 18.

The printing revolution in Renaissance Europe and the spread of the press from the late 15th century onwards introduced an era of mass circulation of ideas with considerable impact on the mass representation of the Holy Land/Palestine. In the European and Italian Renaissance era cartographic representations of Palestine/the Holy Land also increased sharply. The map of ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ was published in Florence around 1480 and was included in Francesco Berlinghieri’s expanded edition of Ptolemy’s Geographia (Geography). Berlinghieri, an Italian Renaissance scholar and diplomat, was the first modern European to interpret, expand upon and republish the works of the 2nd century Greek geographer. Apparently the ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ map was based on the Sanudo‒ Vesconte map of Palestine, a map produced by Pietro Vesconte (who was active between 1310 and 1330) and Marino Sanudo, first published in Venice around 1320.1 Vesconte was a Genoese cartographer, geographer and navigational chart-maker who worked in Venice. He also provided a world map, nautical atlas, a map of Palestine and plan of Acre and Jerusalem for inclusion in Marino Sanuto’s Liber secretorum fidelium cruces super terrae sanctae recuperatione et Conservatione, a work which discusses trade routes and was aimed at encouraging a new Latin crusading campaign, providing a manual for the military reconquest of the Holy Land (Edson 2004: 139; Bagrow 2010: 69‒70). Although gradually ideas of new military crusades began to subside, the Sanudo‒Vesconte map and the maps of ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ were destined to project European power and provide modern representational images of Palestine for the Europeans until the 18th century.

A cikin ƙarni na sha takwas, juyin juya halin bugu a Turai ya sa aka iya buga tare da yaɗa taswirori masu cikakken bayani da yawa na ‘Palestina/Palaestina’ a ko'ina cikin Turai. A shekara ta 1714, Hadrianus Relandus, masanin taswira, masanin harshe da ƙwararren masanin Littafi Mai Tsarki na Gabas, ya buga Palaestina ex monumentis Veteris illustrata, wanda ya kwatanta ƙasar Falasɗinu da taswirori. A Daular Usmaniyya kuwa, buga littattafai da taswirori bai fara ba sai a shekara ta 1729.

The European printing revolution made it possible for dozens of detailed maps of ‘Palestina/Palaestina’ to be published and circulated in Europe throughout the 18th century. In 1714 Palaestina ex monumentis Veteris illustrata by Dutch cartographer, philologist and biblical Orientalist Hadrianus Relandus illustrated the geography of Palestine with maps. In the Ottoman Empire, the printing of books and maps started only in 1729

a kuma a shekarar 1803, Ottoman Cedid Atlas Tercümesi (Fassarar Sabon Atlas), wanda aka buga a Istanbul, an dogara a wani ɓangare da ilimin ƙasa na Turawa da kuma hanyoyin yin taswira na Turawa a zamanin. An buga shi a cikin tsarin 'sabon tsarin' na sauye-sauyen gudanarwa da na soja na Daular Usmaniyya a lokacin, kuma Sabon Atlas ɗin ya haɗa da taswirar Filastin da bar-Sham (yankin bayan al-Sham) tare da kalmar Larabci Ard Filastin ('Ƙasar Filastin'; an rubuta ta ta wata hanya ta musamman: ارض فلاستان) a cikin babban rubutun Larabci a ƙasan hagu na taswirar. Kamar yadda za mu gani a ƙasa, buga wannan sabon atlas na Usmaniyya ya riga buga 'Jacotin Atlas', wanda yake da taswirar da ke amfani da rubutun Larabci don 'Filastin' da 'ƙasar al-Quds' (فلسطين أو أرض قدس) shekaru ashirin da uku kafin haka.

and in 1803 the Ottoman Cedid Atlas Tercümesi (A Translation of a New Atlas), published in Istanbul, was partly based on European geographical knowledge as well as European map-making methods of the day. Published within the framework of the ‘new system’ of the Ottoman administrative and military reforms of the time, the New Atlas included a map of Filastin and bar‑Sham (hinterland of al‑Sham) with the Arabic term Ard Filastin (‘Land of Palestine’; written in a peculiar way: ارض فلاستان ) shown in large Arabic script on the bottom left of the map. As we shall see below, the publication of this new Ottoman atlas preceded the publication of ‘Jacotin Atlas’, which had a map using the Arabic script for ‘Palestine’ and the ‘land of al-Quds’ ( فلسطين أو أرض قدس ) by twenty-three years.

A cikin karni na sha tara, sha'awar Turawa ta soyayya ga Crusades (yakin Crusader) ta sake bayyana a fasaha, a cikin kishin addini da kuma a siyasa, kuma shigar Birtaniya a Falasdinu a zahiri aka sake fakewa da sunan "yakin zaman lafiya" da kuma "Orientalism na Littafi Mai Tsarki".

In the 19th century European romantic Crusader revivalism in art, religious fervour and politics and British actual penetration of Palestine were repackaged in the form of a ‘peace crusade’ and biblical Orientalism.

Wannan shigar a hankali cikin Falasɗinu ta ƙarshen zamanin Daular Usmaniyya ta kai ga Sanarwar Balfour ta Nuwamba 1917, wadda ta goyi bayan Sihiyoniyanci, da kuma ainihin mamayar Falasɗinu ta soja da Birtaniya ta yi a 1917.

This gradual penetration of late Ottoman Palestine culminated in the pro-Zionist Balfour Declaration of November 1917 and the actual British military occupation of Palestine in 1917.