Kalmar Larabci don mosaic ita ce fusayfisaa. Kalmar Larabawa aro ne daga kalmar Girkanci na Byzantium Ψηφιδωτό, kuma fasahar mosaic ta bunkasa sosai a lokacin Daular Byzantium. Mosaic irin na Byzantium sun yi ado a majami'u, da haikalin Yahudawa da na addini a Provincia Palaestina (Prima, Secunda da Tertia), wadanda, tun daga karni na 4, aka yi musu ado sosai da mosaic na bango, rufin gida da na bene. Duka Cocin Nea (Νέα Ἐκκλησία) a Aelia Capitolina (Urushalima), wanda Justinian I (527–565) ya gina, da Cocin Haihuwa a Baitalami, wanda aka gina a matsayin babban basilica na Constantine, an yi musu ado da mosaic. Bene na asali na mosaic na Cocin Haihuwa, mai dauke da zane-zanen lissafi irin na Roma, an adana shi a wani bangare har yau. Kamar yadda muka riga muka nuna, sunan kasar Palaestina da kansa, a Girkanci (Παλαιστινη), an same shi a kan shahararren Taswirar Mosaic ta Madaba, wacce aka tsara a shekarun 560‒565 AD, a wani gari da a lokacin yana cikin lardin Byzantium na Palaestina Prima. Irin wadannan mosaic na Larabawa irin na Byzantium an same su a Fadar Umayyad ta Hisham (Qaṣr Hisham) a Khirbat al-Mafjar, wani muhimmin wurin binciken kayan tarihi na farkon Musulunci, da ke da nisan kilomita 5 arewacin garin Jericho. Yawancin kayan da aka tono daga wurin yanzu ana ajiye su a Gidan Tarihi na Rockefeller (wanda aka sani da Palestine Archaeological Museum a baya) a gabashin Urushalima da aka mamaye.

The Arabic term for mosaics is fusayfisaa. The Arab term is a transliteration of the Byzantine Greek term Ψηφιδωτό and mosaic art spectacularly flourished during the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine-style mosaics decorated the churches, synagogues and temples of Provincia Palaestina (Prima, Secunda and Tertia) which, from the 4th century onwards, were exquisitely embellished with wall, ceiling and flour mosaics. Both the Nea Church (Νέα Ἐκκλησία) in Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem), erected by Justinian I (527–565),3 and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, built as a great Constantinian basilica, were decorated with mosaics. The original mosaic floor of the Church of the Nativity, with its typical Roman geometric motifs, is partially preserved today. As we have already shown, the very name of the country Palaestina, in Greek (Παλαιστινη), was found on the famous Madaba Mosaic Map, dated 560‒565 AD, in a town which at the time was part of the Byzantine province of Palaestina Prima. Similar Arab Byzantine-style mosaics were found at the Umayyad Hisham’s Palace (Qaṣr Hisham) at Khirbat al-Mafjar, an important early Islamic archaeological site located 5 kilometres north of the town of Jericho. Many of the finds from the excavations at the site are now held in the Rockefeller Museum (formerly Palestine Archaeological Museum) in occupied East Jerusalem.

Masana'antar mosaic ta Falasdinu (bango, rufi da bene) ita ma ta bunkasa kuma ta ci gaba da girma sakamakon tasirin shirye-shiryen gine-gine na Ayyubiyawa da Mamluk a Ƙudus. Sake karkatar da kuma sake mayar da Falasdinu zuwa cikin ƙasar a zamanin bayan Crusaders da Ayyubiyawa da Mamluk suka yi, da kuma sake tashin garuruwan tsaunuka (al-Khalil, al-Quds, Nablus, Safad) sakamakon haka, an nuna su a aikin Mujir al-Din al-ʿUlaymi, Tarihin Ɗaukaka na al-Quds da al-Khalil. Mujir al-Din ba kawai yana ambaton kalmar Filastin sau da yawa ba, har ma yana nuna ci gaban asalin zamantakewa da al'adu na yankuna a Falasdinu, musamman fasahar yankin Falasdinu da asalin da ke da alaƙa da garuruwan al-Khalil (da yankin Jabal al-Khalil) da al-Quds (yankin Jabal al-Quds). Waɗannan hanyoyin zamantakewa, tattalin arziki, al'adu da fasaha masu ƙarfi tsakanin garuruwan biyu, waɗanda aka kafa suka bunkasa a zamanin Ayyubiyawa, Mamluk da Ottoman, sun dawwama tsawon ƙarnuka kuma sun tsira zuwa zamanin zamani; kuma suna nuna yadda abubuwan cikin gida na Falasdinawa suka taimaka wajen samar da ƙaƙƙarfan asalin yanki a cikin Falasdinu, asalin da, kamar ayyukan marubutan Musulmi da alƙalan Falasdinawa – Mujir al-Din a karni na 15 da Khair al-Din al-Ramli da al-Tumurtashi a karni na 17 – suka ba da gudummawa sosai ga ra'ayin Falasdinu ta hanyar kiyaye tarihi da tunanin Filastin da rai.

The Palestine mosaic (wall, ceiling and floor) industry also flourished and grew further under the impact of the Ayyubid and Mamluk building programmes in Jerusalem. The reorientation and re-centring of Palestine in the post-Crusader era by the Ayyubids and Mamluks towards the interior of the country and the rise again of the cities of the mountain (al-Khalil, al-Quds, Nablus, Safad) as a consequence are reflected in work of Mujir al-Din al-ʿUlaymi, The Glorious History of al-Quds and al-Khalil. Mujir al-Din not only repeatedly refers to the term Filastin but also points to the evolution of regional social and cultural identities in Palestine and in particular Palestinian regional arts and identity linked to the cities of al-Khalil (and the area of Jabal al-Khalil) and al-Quds (the area of Jabal al-Quds). These close social, economic, cultural and artistic links between the two cities, which were formed and flourished during the Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods, have endured for centuries and survived into the modern period; and they point to the way internal Palestinian factors contributed to the formation of strong regional identities within Palestine, identities which, like the works of Palestinian Muslim writers and qadis – Mujir al-Din in the 15th century and Khair al-Din al-Ramli and al-Tumurtashi in the 17th century – contributed greatly to the concept of Palestine by keeping the history and memories of Filastin alive.

A lokacin mulkin Ayyubawa da Mamluk, Filasdin ta karɓi tasirin zamantakewa, al'adu da gine-gine daga Alkahira da Dimashƙu. Amma kuma manyan biranen Filasdin kamar Nablus, al-Quds da al-Khalil sun fitar da yawancin kayayyakin da ake kera su a cikin gida zuwa Dimashƙu da Alkahira (duba, misali, Ibn Battuta 2005: 57). Abin takaici, duk da haka, ƙarfin ayyukan cikin gida na Filasdin da iyawarta ta samarwa da kirkira sukan kasance ana watsi da su ko kuma a yi watsi da su a rubuce-rubucen masana tarihi, waɗanda sukan mayar da hankali kan tarihin daulolin sarauta kuma sun fi son yin sharhi kan tasirin waje a bayan fasaha da gine-ginen Musulunci na Jerusalem a zamanin Ayyubawa da Mamluk, ba tare da lura da tarihin Filasdin daga ciki ba, ko kuma ikon Falasdinawa na yin ayyukansu bisa ƙa'idodinsu. Misali, masana tarihi sukan nuna kyawun salon Madrasar Tankiziyyah da ke Jerusalem, wanda salonsa yayi kama da Madrasar Tankiziyah da ke Dimashƙu (duba misali Rosen-Ayalon 2006: 119, 155), amma sun kasa ganin makarantun fasaha masu zaman kansu na Filasdin da suka taso a cikin Filasdin. Lallai, al'adun sana'o'i da makarantun fasaha na Filasdin sun bunƙasa a lokacin Mamluk, kuma ana samun hakan a masana'antar gilashi ta al-Khalil da kuma Makarantar Mosaic ta Filasdin. Waɗannan al'adu sun wanzu zuwa zamanin zamani. A ƙarni na 13, a lokacin Mamluk, al-Khalil ta bunƙasa wata masana'antar gilashi mai ci gaba kuma mai daraja sosai, ciki har da kayan adon gilashi da ake kira a Larabci zujaj al-khalili; Tsohon Birnin al-Khalil har yanzu yana da wani yanki mai suna 'Glass-Blower Quarter' (Unguwar Masu Busa Gilashi), kuma gilashin Hebron har yanzu yana zama abin jan hankalin masu yawon buɗe ido a birnin. A al'adance, ana narkar da gilashin ta amfani da kayan ɗanye na gida, ciki har da sodium carbonate daga Tekun Matattu. Tagogin gilashi masu launi da manyan ayyukan fasaha na gilashi da aka samar a al-Khalil suma suna ƙawata Dutsen Dome na Rock a Tsohon Birnin Jerusalem (al-Ju'beh 2008). Kayan fitilun gilashi da kayan ado na gilashi na al-Khalil an fitar da su zuwa Masar, Siriya, Larabawa da Afirka. Birnin ya shahara sosai saboda samar da gilashi a ko'ina cikin duniyar Larabawa da kuma ga matafiya na Yamma da suka zo Falasdinu a zamanin zamani. An kuma nuna kayan adon gilashi daga birnin a Baje-kolin Duniya na 1873 da aka yi a Vienna.4

During the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods Palestine came under social, cultural and architectural influences from Cairo and Damascus. But also the key Palestinian cities such as Nablus, al-Quds and al-Khalil exported much of their locally manufactured goods to Damascus and Cairo (see, for instance, Ibn Battuta 2005: 57). Unfortunately, however, the internal Palestinian agency and the productive and creative capacities of Palestine are often ignored or glossed over by historians who are frequently preoccupied with imperial chronologies and prefer to comment on the external influences behind the Islamic art and architecture of Ayyubid and Mamluk Jerusalem, failing to see Palestinian history from within or the autonomous agency of the Palestinians. For instance, historians often point to the aesthetics of the Tankiziyyah Madrasah in Jerusalem, whose style resembles the Tankiziyah Madrasah in Damascus (see e.g. Rosen-Ayalon 2006: 119, 155), but fail to see independent Palestinian schools of arts emerging within Palestine. Indeed, distinct Palestinian craft traditions and schools of arts developed during the Mamluk period and these are found in the glass industry of al-Khalil and the Palestinian School of Mosaics. These traditions have survived into the modern period. In the 13th century during the Mamluk period al-Khalil developed a flourishing and highly respected glass industry, including glass jewellery known in Arabic as zujaj al-khalili; the Old City of al-Khalil still includes a district named the ‘Glass-Blower Quarter’ and Hebron glass continues to the present time to serve as a tourist attraction for the city. Traditionally, the glass was melted using local raw materials, including sodium carbonate from the Dead Sea. Stained glass windows and great works of art in glass produced in al-Khalil also adorn the Dome of the Rock in the Old City of Jerusalem (al-Ju’beh 2008). Al-Khalil’s glass lamps and glass ornaments were exported to Egypt, Syria, Arabia and Africa. The city became well known for its glass production throughout the Arab world and to Western travellers to Palestine in the modern period. It was also represented with glass ornaments at the World Exposition of 1873 in Vienna.4

Kamar yadda ake gani a masana'antar aikin gilashi ta al-Khalil, sauran ci gaba na tarihin Falasdinu na da can ana iya misalta su ta hanyar fasahar mosaic, wadda take da dogon tarihi a Falasdinu da Gabas ta Tsakiya, tun daga fadoji da gine-ginen haikali a Mesopotamiya a karni na uku kafin haihuwar Annabi Isa. Tsohuwar fasahar mosaic ta Gabas ta Tsakiya ta kunshi tsare-tsare da hotuna da aka yi daga hadewar kananan guntuwar gilashi mai launi, dutse (mosaic din duwatsu) ko wasu kayayyaki, ana amfani da su a fasahar ado ko a matsayin kayan ado na cikin gida. Mosaic masu tsare-tsare da hotuna sun yadu sosai a zamanin gargajiya.

As in the glasswork industry of al-Khalil, other continuities of historic Palestine can be illustrated by the mosaic art which has a long history in Palestine and the Middle East, starting with palaces and temple buildings in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. The ancient mosaic art of the Middle East consisted of patterns and images made from the assembly of small pieces of coloured glass, stone (pebble mosaics) or other materials, used in decorative arts or as interior decoration. Mosaics with patterns and pictures became widespread in classical times.

Falasɗīn ta Musulunci da Shām baki ɗaya sun gāji dukiyar kayan tarihi da fasahar mosaic ta Byzantine ta ƙarshen zamanin dā (Late Antiquity), kuma an yi amfani da wannan gādo sosai wajen gina manyan gine-ginen ibada da fādoji a Umayyad Filastin da Shām. Waɗannan gine-gine sun haɗa da manyan masallatan Musulunci na farko a Urushalima, Dutsen Dome (Dome of the Rock), wanda aka kammala a shekara ta 691 AD, da Masallacin Umayyad da ke Dimashƙu, wanda aka kammala a shekara ta 715. Dutsen Dome da Dome of the Chain da ke maƙwabtaka da shi sun kuma ƙunshi wasu daga cikin fitattun gādon Musulunci na Falasɗīn, gādon da ya ci gaba da zaburar da tsararraki na masu sana'a da masu fasaha shekaru aru-aru a ƙarƙashin Ayyubids, Mamluks da Ottomans. Katharina Galor da Hanswulf Bloedhorn sun yi sharhi kan fitowar wata makarantar mosaic da aikin gilashi ta Falasɗīniyya mai zaman kanta a zamanin Mamluk.

Islamic Palestine and al-Sham as a whole inherited the material heritage and Byzantine mosaic art of Late Antiquity and this material and cultural heritage was deployed widely in the construction of monumental religious buildings and palaces in Umayyad Filastin and al-Sham. These buildings included the first great Islamic religious buildings in Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock, completed in 691 AD, and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, completed in 715. The Dome of the Rock and the neighbouring Dome of the Chain also embodied some of the most spectacular Islamic heritage of Palestine, a heritage which continued to inspire generations of craftsmen and artists for centuries under the Ayyubids, Mamluks and Ottomans. Katharina Galor and Hanswulf Bloedhorn comment on the emergence of an independent Palestinian school of mosaics and glasswork during the Mamluk period:

Ginshiƙan mosaic masu launi da zinare na gilashi, manna mai launi, faience mai launin turquoise, da uwar-lu'ulu'u (mother-of-pearl), haka kuma dutse mai launi da marmara, sun yi wa wasu gine-ginen Mamluk ado. Mafi ban sha'awa na mosaic a bango yana cikin al-Madrasa al-Tankiziyya. Mihrab ɗinsa an lulluɓe shi da kunkuntar tsiri na marmara mai launuka da yawa, an kewaye shi da ginshiƙan Crusader da aka sake amfani da su, masu manyan kawuna, wanda a fili yake kama da wasu fasalolin mosaic na bangon Umayyad a Dome of the Rock, musamman saboda aikin uwar-lu'ulu'u (mother-of-pearl inlay) a cikinsa... Da alama wannan fasaha da ta sake fitowa a makare ta samo wahayinta daga mosaic na karni na bakwai a Dome of the Rock. Majiyoyin tarihi sun nuna cewa an yi gyare-gyare ga mosaic na bango a lokacin Mamluk a duka Dome of the Rock da Dome of the Chain. Ko da yake Syria da Masar suna da irin nau'ikan mosaic na bango iri ɗaya, da alama Urushalima ita ce gidan wata makarantar Falasɗinawa ta gaskiya wadda ta dawwama shekaru aru-aru. (Galor and Bloedhorn 2013: 230)

Mosaics of colored and gilded glass, colored paste, turquoise faience, and mother-of-pearl, as well as colored stone and marble, embellished some of the ... Mamluk buildings. The most impressive wall mosaic is located in al-Madrasa al-Tankiziyya. It mihrab is covered with narrow strips of polychrome marble, flanked by reused Crusader columns with capitals, clearly analogous to certain features of Umayyad wall mosaics in the Dome of the Rock, in particular with its mother-of-pearl inlay ... It appears that this late re-emerging art draw its inspiration from seventh-century mosaics in the Dome of the Rock. Historical sources indicate that restorations of wall mosaics were carried out during the Mamluk period in both the Dome of the Rock and the Dome of Chain. Although Syria and Egypt have similar types of wall mosaics, Jerusalem appears to have been the home of a genuine Palestinian school that lasted for centuries. (Galor and Bloedhorn 2013: 230)

Ingancin kayan gilashi, na mosaic da na sana'o'in hannu a Falasdinu an kasance ana tsara shi sosai, kuma wannan gadon tsarin Mamluk na tsara tattalin arziki ya rayu har zuwa yau a cikin kalmomin Falasdinawa na yau da kullum irin su Hisbe, da kuma cikin sunayen iyalai na Falasdinawa kamar Muhtasib, wani babban dangi Musulmi a birnin al-Khalil (Hebron). Ingancin kayan gilashi, na mosaic da na sana'o'in hannu a Falasdinu an kasance ana tsara shi sosai, kuma wannan gadon tsarin Mamluk na tsara tattalin arziki ya rayu har zuwa yau a cikin kalmomin Falasdinawa na yau da kullum irin su Hisbe, da kuma cikin sunayen iyalai na Falasdinawa kamar Muhtasib, wani babban dangi Musulmi a birnin al-Khalil (Hebron). Tsarin muhtasib a Falasdinu ta Musulunci wani bangare ne na "tattalin arzikin da'a" kafin jari-hujja (aro wannan magana daga masanin tarihin Ingila E. P. Thompson), wanda ka'idojin shari'a na adalci na zamantakewa da jin dadin jama'a suka yi tasiri a kansa, kuma aka yada shi sosai a Gabas ta Tsakiya. Muhtasib jami'i ne mai muhimmanci wanda sarkin Mamluk ya nada, kuma ayyukansa sun hada da tsara farashi da sa ido da duba kasuwanni da cinikayya a Falasdinu, Masar da al-Sham. Wadannan ayyuka iri-iri sun hada da tabbatar da cewa ana gudanar da harkokin jama'a bisa ga bukatun da'a na shari'a (dokar Musulunci). Annobar cututtuka da ke yawaita wata al'ada ce ta yau da kullum a biranen tsakiyar zamani, kuma tsaftar muhalli da samar da ruwa mai tsafta akai-akai, don wuraren wanka na jama'a da magudanan ruwan sha na jama'a a birane, manyan nasarori ne na injiniyancin farar hula na Musulunci a Falasdinu a duk fadin duniyar Musulmi. Muhtasib, yana dogara da littattafan hukuma da aka rubuta, yana kula da tsara tsaftar muhalli a kasuwanni, ma'auni da awo, kudi, farashin kayan amfanin gona da kayayyakin da aka kera, tsaron wuraren jama'a, da abinci da ake sayarwa a fili. Suna kuma tabbatar da cewa masu sana'o'in hannu da magina sun bi ka'idojin da aka tsara don sana'arsu da ma'aunin gine-gine (Ibn al-Ukhuwah 1976; Broadbridge 1999; Hill, D. 1984).

The quality of Palestinian glasswork, mosaics and crafts was tightly regulated and this legacy of the Mamluk system of regulation has survived in modern Palestinian vernacular terms such as Hisbe and in Palestinian family names such as the Muhtasib, a leading Muslim family in the city of al-Khalil (Hebron). The quality of Palestinian glasswork, mosaics and crafts was tightly regulated and this legacy of the Mamluk system of economic regulation has survived in modern Palestinian vernacular terms such as Hisbe and in Palestinian family names such as the Muhtasib, a leading Muslim family in the city of al-Khalil (Hebron). The muhtasib system in Islamic Palestine was part of the pre-capitalist ‘moral economy’ (to borrow an expression by English historian E. P. Thompson), influenced by sharia principles of social justice and the public good and widely promoted in the Near East. The muhtasib was an important official appointed by the Mamluk sultan whose duties included the regulation of prices and supervision and inspection of bazaars and trade in Palestine, Egypt and al-Sham. These varied duties also included ensuring that public business was conducted in accordance with the ethical requirements of the sharia (Islamic law). Recurrent epidemics were a regular phenomenon in the urban centres of the Middle Ages and hygienic conditions and the continuous supply of clean water, for public baths and public drinking fountains in the cities, were major achievements of Islamic civil engineering in Palestine throughout the Muslim world. Relying on written official manuals, the muhtasib supervised the regulation of hygienic conditions in the bazaars, weights and measures, money, prices of produce and manufactured goods, safety of public places and food sold publicly. They also ensured that craftsmen and builders adhered to the specification set for their craft and construction standards (Ibn al-Ukhuwah 1976; Broadbridge 1999; Hill, D. 1984).