A yau akwai ƙasashe da yawa masu cikakken iko na doka a duniyar Larabawa, amma ba duka ne ke da cikakken 'yanci ko iko a fannin manufofin harkokin waje ba. Sabanin haka, ƙasar al-ʿUmar a Falasɗinu tana da cikakken iko a zahiri da kuma a gaskiya, duk da cewa a sunan kawai tana ƙarƙashin Daular Usmaniyya.

Today there are many formally sovereign states in the Arab world, but not all of them are genuinely sovereign or independent when it comes to foreign policy. By contrast, al-ʿUmar’s state in Palestine was sovereign in substance and reality, while nominally still part of the Ottoman Empire.

Amma, jihar al-ʿUmar ta samu amincewa a hukumance daga Daular Usmaniyya a matsayin wata Daula mai cin gashin kanta, kuma a kololuwar ikonta a shekarar 1774 (shekara guda kafin a kashe shi a wajen Acre) yankinta ya miƙe daga kudancin Lebanon ya bi dukkan gaɓar tekun Falasɗinu zuwa Gaza, har ya haɗa wasu yankuna na arewacin Transjordan.

However, al-ʿUmar’s state was formally recognised by the Ottomans as an autonomous Emirate and at its peak in 1774 (a year before he was killed outside Acre) its territory extended from south Lebanon along the entire Palestinian coast to Gaza and included some regions in northern Transjordan.

Ya kuma kewaye birnin Nablus sau biyu (Doumani 1995: 42).

He also twice laid siege to the city of Nablus (Doumani 1995: 42).

Hedikwatar gwamnatinsa ta koma yamma a hankali, daga babban birninsa na farko a Tiberias zuwa ‘Araabah a tsakiyar Galili, sannan zuwa Nazareth, daga nan zuwa Deir Hanna, kuma a ƙarshe zuwa birnin tashar jiragen ruwa na Acre a shekara ta 1746. A farkon karni na 16, Tiberias ya zama wurin mafaka ga Yahudawan Larabawa na Andalus da suka tsira daga Binciken Ƙasar Sipaniya (Spanish Inquisition). Waɗannan Yahudawa ƙwararrun ‘yan ƙaura sun ba da gudummawa daga baya ga faɗaɗa masana'antar siliki ta garin da kuma bunƙasar matsayin Tiberias a matsayin cibiyar kasuwanci tsakanin Damascus da Hijaz.

The headquarters of his administration shifted westwards, from his first capital in Tiberias to ‘Araabah in central Galilee, then to Nazareth, then to Deir Hanna and finally to the port city of Acre in 1746. In the early 16th century Tiberias had become a city of refuge for Andalusian Arab-Jewish survivors of the Spanish Inquisition. These skilled Jewish migrants eventually contributed both to the expansion of the town’s silk industry and the growth of Tiberias’ role as a trade centre between Damascus and the Hijaz.

Al-‘Umar ya faɗaɗa tare da ƙarfafa Tiberias, amma a lokacin Acre ta zama babban birnin Galili da kuma cibiyar kasuwancinsa mai riba da Turai. Acre ta ci gaba da zama cibiyar mulkinsa tsawon kusan shekaru talatin, daga bisani kuma ta zama babban birnin wani mulki mai cin gashin kansa a Falasdinu, na Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (‘Mai Yanka’), wanda ya zauna a fadar da al-ʿUmar ya gina, tsawon shekaru ashirin daga 1776 zuwa 1804. Mulkin al-ʿUmar ya sake nuna dogaron juna tsakanin manyan birane da yankunan karkararsu a Falasdinu – wata siffa mai ci gaba a tarihin Falasdinu, na zamanin da, na tsakiya da na zamani. Ta hanyar Masarautarsa ta Galili, ko dawlah qutriyyah, al-ʿUmar ya zama sananne a duniya a karni na 18 a matsayin ‘Sarkin Galili’ (Nasrallah 2015: x).

Al-‘Umar expanded and fortified Tiberias further, but now Acre was the capital of the Galilee and the centre of his lucrative international trade with Europe. Acre remained the centre of his regime for nearly three decades and subsequently became the capital of another autonomous regime in Palestine, that of Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (the ‘Butcher’), who lived in the palace built by al-ʿUmar for another two decades from 1776 until 1804. Al-ʿUmar’s regime would demonstrate once again the continuing interdependence of urban centres with their rural contexts in Palestine – a continuing feature of the history of Palestine, ancient, medieval and modern. With his Galilee- based Emirate or dawlah qutriyyah, al-ʿUmar became internationally known in the 18th century as ‘King of Galilee’ (Nasrallah 2015: x).

A tsakiyar karni na 18 daular Usmaniyya, wadda ta yi rauni ƙwarai, ta zama dole ta daidaita da sabon yanayin iko a Falasdinu, ƙasar da ta ci gaba da kasancewa a suna kawai a cikin Daular Usmaniyya. A shekara ta 1768 hukumomin Usmaniyya sun shiga wani yanayi na wulakanci, inda suka tilastu wa amincewa da mulkin al-ʿUmar a Falasdinu, kamar yadda Usmaniyyawa suka tilastu wa amincewa da masarautar Dutsen Lebanon da mulkin Amir Fakhr-al-Din II shekaru ɗari a baya. Usmaniyyawa sun bai wa al-ʿUmar take na ‘Shaikh na Akka, Amir na Nazareth, Tiberias, Safed, kuma Shaikh na dukan Galili’ (Philipp 2015).

In the mid-18th century the deeply weakened Ottoman regime had to come to terms with the new power realities in Palestine, a country which remained only nominally part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1768 the Ottoman authorities were forced into a humiliating position of having to recognise al-ʿUmar’s regime in Palestine in the way the Ottomans had been forced to recognise the emirate of Mount Lebanon and the regime of Emir Fakhr-al-Din II a century earlier. The Ottomans granted al-ʿUmar the title of ‘Sheikh of Acre, Emir of Nazareth, Tiberias, Safed, and Sheikh of all Galilee’ (Philipp 2015).

Manufofin tattalin arzikin Al-ʿUmar, waɗanda suka amfani manoman Falasɗin, dabarun yakinsa da kawancensa na yanki da na duniya (da Sarakunan Druze masu cin gashin kansu na Dutsen Lebanon, da Mamluk na Masar, da Rasha), an ƙaddara su a wani bangare ta hanyar gwagwarmayarsa da Daular Usmaniyya, a wani bangare kuma ta hanyar mallakar cinikin auduga da man zaitun da ke bunƙasa zuwa Turai, musamman danyen auduga zuwa Ingila bayan juyin juya halin masana'antu da kuma karuwar bukatar masana'antar saƙa ta Birtaniya na danyen auduga daga Falasɗin da Gabas ta Tsakiya. Hawan Al-ʿUmar mulki a karni na 18 ya samu sauki sakamakon babban ci gaban noman auduga a Falasɗin da fitar da wannan amfanin gona zuwa Faransa da Ingila. An san amfani da auduga wajen saƙa tun zamanin da kafin tarihi, kuma an noma auduga a tsohuwar Masar da Farisa, haka kuma Larabawa sun san shi tun zamanin da. Tsawon karnoni da dama tun zamanin tsakiya, Falasɗin da Galili sun kasance babban yanki na noman auduga (Quataert 2002: 27; Le Strange 1890: 16‒19; 2014: 18‒19; al-Maqdisi 1994). Tun a karni na 10 miladiyya, masanin tarihin Falasɗin al-Maqdisi ya yi tsokaci kan cewa auduga na daya daga cikin manyan amfanin gona na Falasɗin (wanda aka ambata a Le Strange 2014: 18‒19; haka kuma Le Strange 1890: 16‒19; al-Maqdisi 1994).

Al-ʿUmar’s economic policies, which benefited the Palestinian peasantry, his military strategies and regional and international alliances (with the autonomous Druze Emirs of Mount Lebanon, Mamluk Egypt and Russia) were partly dictated by his struggle with the Ottoman Empire and partly by his monopolisation of the flourishing cotton and olive oil exports to Europe, especially raw cotton to England following its Industrial Revolution and the expanding British textile industry’s demand for raw cotton from Palestine and the Near East. Al-ʿUmar’s rise to power in the 18th century was facilitated by the considerable growth of cotton cultivation in Palestine and the export of this cash crop to France and England. The use of cotton for fabric is known to date back to prehistoric times and cotton had been cultivated in ancient Egypt and Persia, and it was also known to the Arabs since Antiquity. For many centuries since the Middle Ages Palestine and the Galilee had been a major area of cotton cultivation (Quataert 2002: 27; Le Strange 1890: 16‒19; 2014: 18‒19; al-Maqdisi 1994). Already in the 10th century AD Palestinian historian al-Maqdisi commented on the fact that cotton was one of the key agricultural products of Palestine (cited in Le Strange 2014: 18‒19; also Le Strange 1890: 16‒19; al-Maqdisi 1994).

Kasuwar auduga mai girma da cinikayyar ƙasashen waje da Falasdinu da al-Sham sun ci gaba a lokacin zamanin Mamluk, amma sun bunƙasa a ƙarshen zamanin Ottoman a Falasdinu, musamman a ƙarni na 18. A yau Suq al-Qattanin (‘Kasuwar Ƴan Kasuwar Auduga’) – wanda kuma aka sani da Suq na Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri, sarkin Mamluk na Falasdinu da Siriya – a cikin Tsohon Birnin Kudus, shaida ce mai girma da kuma sunan wuri da ke nuna dogon tarihi da muhimmancin wannan masana'antar auduga ta Falasdinu. Suq al-Qattanin yana gefen yamma na Haram al-Sharif. Kasuwar ta samo asali ne daga shekara ta 1336–1337 AD kuma tana ƙunshe da wasu daga cikin mafi kyau da kuma mafi arziƙin gine-ginen Musulunci a Birnin Kudus. A tsakiyar Suq akwai sa hannun ɗaya daga cikin mawaƙan da suka yi aiki a ginin ta. An rubuta rubutun da rubutun Larabci na naskhi, yana cewa: ‘Allah Ya yi masa rahama, aikin Muhammad bin Ahmad bin ‘Alish.’ Suq yana da ƙofofi biyu, ɗaya a yamma ɗayan kuma a gabas, wanda ake kira Bab al-Qattanin (‘Ƙofar Ƴan Kasuwar Auduga’), wanda ke buɗewa zuwa gefen yamma na Haram. Ana ɗaukar Suq al-Qattanin a matsayin ɗaya daga cikin mafi cika da kyau na kasuwannin tsakiyar zamani ba kawai a Falasdinu ba, har ma a dukkan Gabas ta Tsakiya (Burgoyne 1987; Burgoyne da Abu al-Hajj 1979: 128–129).3

Sizeable cotton cultivation and international trade with Palestine and al-Sham continued in the course of the Mamluk period but flourished in late Ottoman Palestine, especially in the 18th century. Today Suq al-Qattanin (‘Market of the Cotton Merchants’) – also known as Suq of Amir Tankaz al-Nasiri, the Mamluk ruler of Palestine and Syria – in the Old City of Jerusalem is a monumental and toponymic testament to the long history and significance of this Palestinian cotton industry. Suq al-Qattanin is located on the west side of the Haram al-Sharif. The market dates from 1336–1337 AD and contains some of the most exquisite and richest Islamic architecture in Jerusalem. In the middle of the Suq there is the signature of one of the craftsmen who worked on its construction. Written in Arabic naskhi script, the inscription reads: ‘May God have mercy on him, the work of Muhammad bin Ahmad bin ‘Alish. The Suq has two entrances, one to the west and the other to the east, called Bab al-Qattanin (‘Gate of the Cotton Merchants’), which opens on to the west side of the Haram. Suq al-Qattanin is considered to be one of the most complete and beautiful medieval suqs not only in Palestine, but in the whole of the Near East (Burgoyne 1987; Burgoyne and Abu al-Hajj 1979: 128–129).3

Tun daga zamanin Yakin Gicciye, yankin Levant da arewacin Falasdinu sun kasance suna samar da kasuwannin masaku na yankin da na Turai ta hanyar garuruwan tashar jiragen ruwa irin su Akka. Noman auduga a Falasdinu ya ci gaba a dukan zamanin Daular Usmaniyya, amma ya bunkasa sosai a karni na 18 karkashin jagorancin al-ʿUmar mai inganci, wanda ya shiga cikin kasuwancin kayan amfani mafi riba a duniya a lokacin: auduga. Tashin al-ʿUmar ya zo daidai da karuwar bukatar auduga danye daga Faransa da Birtaniya bayan Juyin Juya Halin Masana'antu a karni na 18. Jari-hujjar Birtaniya da masana'antun Lancashire sun baiwa Birtaniya damar zama babbar mai fitar da masaku da aka sarrafa. Tun daga karshen karni na 18, birnin Manchester na Birtaniya ya samu laƙabin ‘Cottonpolis’ saboda yawan masana'antar auduga a cikinsa, da kuma matsayin Manchester a tsakiyar cinikin auduga na yanki da na duniya. Hakika, shigar da Falasdinu cikin kasuwannin Turai na zamani da tsarin jari-hujjar duniya karkashin Birtaniya, da shigo da masaku daga Lancashire zuwa Falasdinu, ya zama babban kalubale ga masakun da ake samarwa a cikin gida a Falasdinu (Doumani 1995).

From the time of the Crusades the Levant and north Palestine had supplied both regional and European textile markets via port cities such as Acre. The cultivation of cotton in Palestine was maintained throughout the Ottoman period but grew dramatically in the 18th century under the effective leadership of al-ʿUmar, who got involved in the world’s most profitable commodity at the time: cotton. Al-‘Umar’s rise coincided with the rise of French and British demand for raw cotton following the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. British capitalism and the manufacturing industries of Lancashire enabled Britain to emerge as the leading exporter of manufactured textiles. From the late 18th century onwards, the British city of Manchester acquired the nickname ‘Cottonpolis’ due to the cotton industry’s predominance within the city, and Manchester’s role at the heart of the regional and international cotton trade. Of course, the incorporation of Palestine into the modern European markets and British-dominated global capitalist system and import of textiles from Lancashire to Palestine posed a major challenge to the locally produced textiles in Palestine (Doumani 1995).

Hukumar Al-ʿUmar ta kasance ta zamani ce. Gwamnatinsa ta arzuta ta hanyar fitar da auduga da man zaitun zuwa ƙasashen waje, kuma mulkinsa ya ƙarfafa tare da faɗaɗa wannan ciniki mai riba da Turai, har zuwa tsakiyar karni na 18 kasuwancin auduga da masaku na yankin da na duniya ya sa babban birninsa Acre da birnin Nablus na Falasdinu su zama manyan birane kuma mafi wadata a ƙasar, kuma daga cikin manyan birane na Al-Sham (Doumani 1995; Philipp 2001). Duk da ci gaban fasaha mai girma da aka samu a Turai a karni na 19 da kuma raguwar tattalin arzikin auduga na Galilee da ta biyo baya (Heyd 1942), har a tsakiyar karni na 19 jakadan Birtaniya a Urushalima James Finn ya kan tuna tafiye-tafiyensa a tsakiyar Falasdinu da yankin Nablus‒Jenin‒Tulkarem, kuma ya lura cewa gonakin auduga da ya ziyarta ‘tsaftatattu ne kuma cikin tsari’ (Kamel 2015). A gaskiya, sakamakon manufofin Al-ʿUmar, tsawon sama da karni guda tsakanin shekarun 1730 zuwa 1860, auduga ya ci gaba da kasancewa babban abin da ake fitarwa daga Falasdinu zuwa Turai.

Al-ʿUmar’s rule was of modern creation. His administration grew rich on foreign export of cotton and olive oil and his rule consolidated and expanded this lucrative trade with Europe and by the mid-18th century regional and global trade in cotton and textiles made his capital city of Acre and the Palestinian city of Nablus the biggest and the most prosperous cities in the country and among the largest cities of al-Sham (Doumani 1995; Philipp 2001). Despite the massive technological developments in Europe in the 19th century and subsequent decline of the cotton economy of the Galilee (Heyd 1942), even in the mid-19th century the British Consul in Jerusalem James Finn would recall his journeys in central Palestine and the Nablus‒Jenin‒Tulkarem triangle, and note that the cotton plantations he visited were ‘beautifully clean and orderly’ (Kamel 2015). In fact, as a consequence of al-ʿUmar’s policies, for over a century between the 1730s and 1860s cotton would remain the main export from Palestine to Europe.

Kafin 1852 Falasdinu tana fitar da auduganta galibi zuwa yankin al-Sham, Italiya, Faransa, kuma a ƙarami, zuwa Ingila. A shekarar 1859 wani littafin bayani na yanki na Birtaniya ya ruwaito cewa: Taba, lentil, zaitun, auduga da siliki, ana noma su sosai a wannan pash.[lik na Acre] ['wani yanki na Falasdinu'] … Kayayyakin da ake ƙerawa kawai su ne masakun siliki da auduga. Wurin wannan yanki yana da matuƙar dacewa ga kasuwanci. Kayayyakin da ake fitarwa daga Acre da Beirut, manyan tashoshinta, su ne ulu, auduga, siliki, taba, gumomi, busasshen 'ya'yan itace, gallnut, tushen madder, da fata. Cinikin fitarwa ana yinsa ne musamman da Faransa da Italiya … Wannan pash.[lik] sabon abu ne da aka kafa. A shekarar 1749 yana cikin pash.[lik] na Saida ko Sidon, lokacin da Dhahir, ɗan Omar, wani shugaban Larabawa, ya mamaye Acre, ya samu ya mallaki dukkan pash.[lik] ƙarƙashin ikonsa.4

Before 1852 Palestine exported its cotton mainly to the al-Sham region, Italy, France and, to a lesser extent, England. In 1859 it was reported by a British geographical gazetteer that Tobacco, lent[ils], olives, cotton and silk, are extensively produced in this pash.[lik of Acre] [‘a part of Palestine’] … The only manufactures are silk and cotton fabrics. The situation of this district is highly favourable to commerce. The exports from Acre and Beirut, its principal ports, are wool, cotton, silk, tobacco, gums, dried fruits, gallnuts, madder-root, and skins. The export trade is principally carried on with France and Italy … This pash.[lik] is of modern creation. In 1749 it formed part of the pash.[lik] of Saida or Sidon, when Dhahir, son of Omar, an Arab Sheikh, having invaded Acre, succeeded in subduing the whole pash.[lik] to his way.4

Amma, bayan shekara ta 1870 auduga ta rasa matsayinta na babbar amfanin gona da ake fitarwa zuwa Turai, inda lemun orange na Falasdin (wadanda aka fi sani da lemun Jaffa) suka maye gurbinta. Ta hanyar amfana da sabbin dabarun noma da sabbin hanyoyin dasa bishiyar 'ya'yan itace, masana'antar lemun Larabawan Falasdin ta zama babbar amfanin gona da ake fitarwa zuwa Turai a dukkan kwata na karshe na karni na 19 (Lucas 2003: 21‒22). A rabin na biyu na karni na 19 an kuma shigo da injinan zare na zamani zuwa Falasdin, kuma karamar masana'antar saka auduga ta ci gaba har zuwa karni na 20.

However, after 1870 cotton lost its leading role as the key cash crop shipped to Europe, being replaced by the oranges of Palestine (the iconic Jaffa oranges). Benefiting from new agricultural innovations and new tree grafting techniques, the Palestine Arab citrus industry became the number one produce exported to Europe throughout the last quarter of the 19th century (Lucas 2003: 21‒22). During the second half of the 19th century modern cotton-spinning machinery was also imported into Palestine and a small-scale cotton-spinning industry continued into the 20th century.

Abin mamaki, a karni na 18 kyakkyawan ingancin irin auduga na Falasdinu da Levant ya kai ga kai shi ƙasashen mulkin mallaka na Arewacin Amurka. Sai dai ba kamar mulkin mallakar masu tsugunnawa na Arewacin Amurka ba, inda noma da girbin auduga ya zama sana'ar bayi ta farko, gonakin auduga na Falasdinu manoman talakawa ne suke noma su.

Interestingly, in the 18th century the high quality of Palestinian and Levantine cotton seeds led to its transferral to the soils of the colonies of North America. But unlike the settler-colonialism of North America, in which cultivating and harvesting cotton became the leading occupation of slaves, the Palestine cotton plantations were cultivated by ordinary farmers.

Duk da haka, samar da auduga mai inganci a yankin Levant a ƙarshen karni na sha takwas ya zarce na mulkin mallaka na Amurka sau kusan talatin (Quataert 2002: 27). Birnin Acre, wanda ya faɗaɗa, ya zama birni na farko na 'zamani' a Falasdinu a karni na sha takwas da sabuwar cinikayyar ƙasashen waje ta shafa kai tsaye, da Juyin Juya Halin Masana'antu na Birtaniya, da buƙatar Ingila ta danyen auduga.

Yet ‘still, canton production in the Levant during the late eighteenth century exceeded, by a factor of nearly thirty, that in the American colonies’ (Quataert 2002: 27). The expanded port city of Acre became the first ‘modern’ Palestinian city in the 18th century to be directly affected by the new foreign trade, the British Industrial Revolution and England’s demand for raw cotton.

Tsawon karni, tsakanin 1730 zuwa 1831, fitar da amfanin gona masu riba sosai – da farko auduga sannan hatsi – ya sa Akka ta zama babbar cibiyar kasuwanci da ikon siyasa a gabar tekun Falasdinu/Lebanon. Birnin kuma ya fara taka rawa a siyasar duniya a kashi na ƙarshe na karni na 18 (Philipp 2001: 3). Da farko a ƙarƙashin al-ʿUmar, daga baya kuma a ƙarƙashin al-Jazzar – mai mulki daga Akka daga 1776 har zuwa mutuwarsa a 1804:

For a century between 1730 and 1831 the export of highly profitable cash crops – first cotton and then grain – made Acre the largest centre of trade and political power on the Palestinian/Lebanese coast. The city also began to play a role in international politics in the last quarter of the 18th century (Philipp 2001: 3). First under al-ʿUmar and later under al-Jazzar – the Acrebased ruler from 1776 until his death in 1804:

[Na zamani] Akko ita ce mabudin yankin farko a gabashin tekun Bahar Rum da aka haɗa da tattalin arzikin zamani ... birni mai ƙarfi da katanga wanda mazauna kusan 25,000 ne, [kuma] yana da alaƙa sosai da ƙaruwar buƙatar auduga a Turai.

[Modern] Acre was the key to the first region in the eastern Mediterranean that was tied into modern economy ... an important fortified city of perhaps 25,000 inhabitants [which] was closely connected with the ever-rising demand for cotton in Europe.

(Philipp 2001: 1)

(Philipp 2001: 1)

A ƙarƙashin tasirin cinikayyar ƙasa da ƙasa a lokacin mulkin al-ʿUmar da al-Jazzar:

Under the impact of international trade during the rule of both al-ʿUmar and al-Jazzar:

Cikin ɗan gajeren lokaci, Acre ta zama birni mai masallatai da yawa ... masaukai ga matafiya ... wuraren wanka na jama'a da kasuwanni. Haka kuma tana da katanga mai ƙarfi da kuma magudanar ruwa (aqueduct) don tabbatar da samun ruwan sha. Ƙauyukan Galili da ke cikin ƙasa sun bunƙasa kuma sun samar da mafi yawan abin da ya zama tushen tattalin arzikin noma na Falasɗinu.

[W]ithin a very short period of time, [modern] Acre bloomed into a city possessing several mosques ... caravansaries ... [public] baths and markets. It also boasted fortified walls and an aqueduct to ensure its water supply. The [Galilee] villages further inland developed most of what was to become the basis of Palestine’s agricultural economy.

(Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 520)

(Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 520)

Na zamani ne, kuma watakila alamar al'adun Falasdinu ta farkon zamani mafi girma ita ce Farin Masallacin zamanin Akka, wanda aka fi sani da Masallacin al-Jazzar, wanda ya zama alama mafi karfi ta babban birnin arewacin Falasdinu na zamani. An gina shi a shekarar 1781, shekaru goma sha takwas kafin mamayar Napoleon a Falasdinu, kuma gine-ginensa ya samu tasiri daga manyan masallatan Ottoman na Istanbul. Sunansa (Farin Masallaci) ya tuna da shahararren Farin Masallacin al-Ramla, babban birnin Jund Filastin, lardin Falasdinu a dukkan zamanin farkon Musulunci. Harabar Farin Masallacin ta kunshi makarantar koyar da ilimin tauhidi ta Musulunci, makarantar farko irinta a Falasdinu. An yi ta ne bisa tsarin kwalejin jami'ar al-Azhar ta Alkahira, kuma ta bambanta da makarantun Musulunci na gargajiya na zamanin tsakiya (madrasahs) na Kudus. Harabar masallaci da kwalejin ta kunshi masauki ga dalibai, kotun Musulunci da babban dakin karatu na jama'a, duk an biya su ne daga harajin cikin gida na Falasdinu da kuma kasuwancin auduga da sauran amfanin gona na kudi da ke bunkasa a yankin da kuma na duniya. Masallacin al-Jazzar, wanda ke kallon tekun Bahar Rum ta Gabas daga sama, ya kuma nuna sauyin fuskar Falasdinu ta zamani zuwa Turai, karkashin tasirin manufofin cinikayya na duniya da manyan shirye-shiryen gine-gine da shugabannin biyu masu karfi, al-ʿUmar da al-Jazzar, suka bi.

Of modern creation, and perhaps the most monumental symbol of the culture of early modern Palestine is the White Mosque of modern Acre, famously known as al-Jazzar Mosque, which became the most powerful symbol of the modern capital of northern Palestine. Constructed in 1781, eighteen years before the Napoleonic invasion of Palestine, and influenced architecturally by the grand Ottoman mosques of Istanbul, its namesake (the White Mosque) evoked memories of the famous White Mosque of al-Ramla, the capital of Jund Filastin, the province of Palestine throughout early Islam. The compound of the White Mosque included an Islamic theological academy, the first college of its kind in Palestine. Modelled on the al-Azhar university college of Cairo, and departing from the traditional medieval Islamic schools (madrasahs) of Jerusalem, the mosque/college compound contained student lodging, an Islamic court and a major public library, all paid for by Palestinian local taxes and by the flourishing regional and international trade in cotton and other cash crops of Palestine. Spectacularly overlooking the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, al-Jazzar Mosque was also a statement of the reorientation of modern Palestine towards Europe under the impact of the international trade policies and the monumental building programmes pursued by the two powerful leaders, al-ʿUmar and al-Jazzar.

Ƙarfafa cinikayya da ƙasashen waje, haɓaka sababbin hanyoyin noma na cikin gida, da fitar da amfanin gona masu riba kamar auduga, hatsi da man zaitun zuwa Turai, abubuwan da suka fara a ƙarƙashin al-ʿUmar a shekarar 1730, suka ci gaba har zuwa 1830, kuma gadon wannan cinikayyar da ƙasashen waje ya ƙarfafa ci gaban lemun Shamouti (wanda ya shahara a duniya da suna lemun Jaffa). Manoman Falasɗinu ne suka ƙirƙiri lemun Shamouti a tsakiyar karni na 19; irin wannan lemu kusan ba shi da iri, kuma bawonsa mai ƙarfi ya sa ya dace musamman da fitarwa zuwa ƙasashen waje (Issawi 2006: 127; Gerber 1982). Kamar yadda ake fitar da auduga da hatsin Falasɗinu a ƙarni na 18 da na 19, yawancin amfanin lemun Shamouti an fitar da shi zuwa Faransa da Ingila tun daga tsakiyar karni na 19 zuwa gaba.

The encouragement of foreign trade, promotion of local agricultural innovations and export of profitable cash crops such as cotton, grain and olive oil to Europe, which began under al-ʿUmar in the 1730s, continued until 1830 and the legacy of this foreign trade stimulated the development in the Shamouti orange (which became internationally known as the Jaffa orange). Developed by Palestinian farmers in the mid-19th century, Shamouti oranges were an almost seedless variety of oranges with a tough skin that made them particularly suitable for international export (Issawi 2006: 127; Gerber 1982). Like the export of Palestine cotton and grain in the 18th and 19th centuries, much of the Shamouti orange crop was exported to France and England from the mid-19th century onwards.

Ƙarfin gwamnatin Al-ʿUmar ya buɗe sabon zamani mai ƙarfi a Falasdiɗu, bayan doguwar lokacin sakaci, tsaiko da cin zarafi mai yawa da Daular Usmaniyya ta yi wa manoman Falasdiɗu, lokacin da aka mayar da Falasdiɗu ƙasar iyaka kuma koma-baya ta daular. A wannan sabon zamanin daular ƙarƙashin Al-ʿUmar, Galili da mafi yawan sassan Falasdiɗu sun sami haraji mai inganci da adalci, faɗaɗa birane da ci gaban tattalin arziki. An gina gine-ginen gwamnati da yawa, katangu, ganuwa, ɗakunan ajiya, da khans (masaukan ƴan kasuwa).

Al-ʿUmar’s powerful state ushered in a new dynamic era in Palestine, after a long period of Ottoman neglect, stagnation and rampant exploitation of the Palestinian peasantry, during which Palestine was turned into a frontier country and an imperial backwater. In this new dynastic period under al-ʿUmar, the Galilee and large parts of Palestine experienced effective and fair taxation, urban expansion and economic development. Many public buildings, fortresses, fortifications, warehouses, khans (caravanserais)

– wanda ya fi ban mamaki a cikinsu shi ne Khan al-Tujjar na Acre, wanda aka gina shi cikin kyakkyawan tsari; a yau wurin yana tsakiyar manufofin Isra'ila na mayar da birnin Larabawa na Yahudawa – kuma an gina wurare masu yawa na ibada a cikin dukkan yankinsa. Yawancin waɗannan wurare da abubuwan tarihi har yanzu ana iya gani a yau a ko'ina cikin Galili. Jihar Al-ʿUmar ta bi manufofin da ba su nuna bambancin addini ba, kuma ta ƙarfafa shigar mabiya addinai marasa rinjaye (Kiristoci, Yahudawa da Shi'a) cikin mulkinsa, kuɗi da tattalin arzikinsa. Jihohi da wayewar zamani na farko a Falasdinu a karni na 18 sun kasance tare da juna sosai:

– the most spectacular of which is the exquisitely-built Khan al-Tujjar of Acre; today the site is at the centre of Israeli Judaisation policies in the Arab city – and numerous places of worship were built throughout his domain. Many of these sites and monuments can still be seen today throughout the Galilee. Al-ʿUmar’s state pursued religiously inclusive policies and encouraged the involvement of religious minorities (Christians, Jews and Shi’ites) in his administration, finance and economy. Statehood and early modernities in 18th century Palestine were intertwined:

A ƙarƙashin jagorancin Dhaher al-ʿUmar al-Zaidani (1730‒75), an kafa wata ƙasa mai ƙarfi da kāriya a arewacin Falasɗinu, wadda ta bunƙasa ci gaba. An tabbatar da tsaro ga noman gona, galibi alkama da auduga don fitarwa, musamman zuwa Faransa, wadda wakilanta suke zaune a babban birnin Zaidani da tashar jiragen ruwa ta Akka.

Under the leadership of Dhaher al-ʿUmar al-Zaidani (1730‒75), a powerful and protective state was formed in northern Palestine that fostered development. Security was ensured for agricultural production, mainly wheat and cotton for export, particularly to France whose agents resided in the Zaidani capital and port of Acre.

Manoma da ƙananan ƙabilun addini suna samun kariya, don haka suna da hannun jari a nasarar jihar. A shekarar 1764‒65, al-ʿUmar ya kafa sabon gari [Haifa] ya kuma ƙarfafa shi da garu. (Seikaly 2002b: 97)

Peasants and religious minorities were protected and thus had a stake in the success of the state. In 1764‒65, al-ʿUmar established a new town [Haifa] and secured it with walls. (Seikaly 2002b: 97)

Ƙarfin siyasa da tsayayyen tsarin haraji mai adalci da al-ʿUmar ya kafa a arewacin Falasɗin, tare da faɗaɗawa da sauya tsoffin cibiyoyin birane kamar Akka, Tiberiya da Safad, sun kuma kai ga kafuwar ‘Haifa ta zamani’ da kuma sauyawar Nazarat daga ƙaramin ƙauye zuwa babban gari a Falasɗin. Haifa ta zamani, ko ‘sabuwar Haifa’ (Haifa al-Jadidah), al-ʿUmar ne ya kafa ta a shekarun 1764‒1765. An yi haka ta hanyar ƙaura da mazauna yankin 250 zuwa ƙauyen Haifa mai katanga, mai nisan kilomita 2.4 gabas da tsohon ƙauye.5 Wannan ‘sabon/na zamani’ ƙauyen Larabawan Falasɗin ya zama tushen garin Haifa na zamani (Yazbak 1998), wanda a yau shi ne birni na uku mafi girma a Isra'ila. An fara sanya wa sabon ƙauyen suna da Larabci al-ʿImarah al-Jadidah (‘Sabon Ginin’), kalma da aka yi amfani da ita ga gine-gine na zamani a Falasɗin a karni na 18. Mazauna yankin Falasɗinawa sun fara kiran ƙauyen Sabuwar Haifa, daga bisani kuma kawai Haifa. Wannan sabon ƙauyen Larabawa ya bunƙasa ya zama garin Larabawa, wanda a karni na 20 ya haɓaka zuwa birnin Haifa na zamani (Seikaly 2002a, 2002b; Sharon 2013: 262; Mariti 1792: 318). Makamancin haka, ‘sabon’ zamanin jihar al-ʿUmar ya alamta farkon tarihin zamani na Falasɗin.

The political stability and effective and fair taxation system provided by al-ʿUmar in northern Palestine and the expansion and transformation of historic urban centres such Acre, Tiberias and Safad also led to the founding of ‘modern’ Haifa’ and the transformation of Nazareth from a small village into a major town in Palestine. Modern Haifa, or the ‘new Haifa’ (Haifa al-Jadidah), was founded by al-ʿUmar in 1764‒1765. This was done by moving the 250 local inhabitants to the fortified village of Haifa 2.4 kilometres to the east of the old hamlet.5 This ‘new/modern’ Palestinian Arab village became the nucleus of the modern town of Haifa (Yazbak 1998), today the third largest city in Israel. The new village was originally named in Arabic al-ʿImarah al-Jadidah (‘the New Construction’), a term applied to modern buildings in Palestine in the 18th century. Local Palestinians first called the village New Haifa and later simply Haifa. This new Arab village grew into an Arab town which in the 20th century developed into the modern city of Haifa (Seikaly 2002a, 2002b; Sharon 2013: 262; Mariti 1792: 318). In a similar vein, the ‘new’ era of al-ʿUmar’s state symbolised the beginning of the modern history of Palestine.

Sabon tattalin arzikin noma da cinikayyar waje na Falasdinu ya haifar da sauyin Nazarat – an-Nasirah a harshen Larabci, tana riƙe da ƙarshen 'mace' da yawancin sunayen wurare na Falasɗinawa na Galili ke da su – daga ƙaramin ƙauye zuwa babban gari, ta hanyar ƙarfafa baƙi su zo mata, daga gwamnatin al-ʿUmar. 'Sabon garin' Nazarat ya taka muhimmiyar rawa ta fuskar tattalin arziki, addini da dabaru a ƙarƙashin mulkin al-ʿUmar.

The new agricultural economy and foreign trade of Palestine led to the transformation of Nazareth – al-Nasirah in Arabic, retaining the ‘feminine’ endings common to many Palestinian Arabic toponyms of Galilee – by al-ʿUmar’s state from a small hamlet into a large town by encouraging immigration to it. The ‘new town’ of Nazareth played important economic, religious and strategic roles under al-ʿUmar’s rule.

Babban birnin na huɗu na Al-ʿUmar shi ne Nazarat, kuma saboda wannan dalili ya ba da umarnin a gina sabon gidan gwamnati da aka sani da Saraya (‘Fada’). An gina wannan tsohon gini kimanin shekara ta 1740, kuma daga baya a karni na 19 ya zama mazaunin Gwamnan Ottoman na Nazarat da yankinta, sannan daga baya ya zama hedikwatar gudanarwar birnin har zuwa shekara ta 1991. Yayin da yake amfani da Nazarat don tabbatar da ikonsa a kan filayen noma masu matukar albarka na tsakiyar Galili (Yazbak 1998: 15) da Marj Ibn ʿAmer, rumbun hatsi mai arziki na Falasɗinu, Al-ʿUmar ya ƙarfafa haƙuri da addinai daban-daban, kuma ya kare al’ummomin Kiristoci da ke garin, wadanda kuma ya yi amfani da su wajen ƙarfafa dangantakarsa da ƙasashen waje da Faransa (Emmett 1995:

Al-ʿUmar’s fourth capital was Nazareth and for this purpose he commissioned the construction of a new government house known as the Saraya (the ‘Palace’). This historic building was constructed around 1740 and later in the 19th century served as the residence of the local Ottoman Governor of Nazareth and its subdistrict and subsequently as the city’s municipal headquarters until 1991. While using Nazareth to secure his control over the hugely fertile agricultural lands of central Galilee (Yazbak 1998: 15) and Marj Ibn ‘Amer, the rich granary of Palestine, al-ʿUmar encouraged religious toleration and protected the Christian communities in the town, which he also used to strengthen his international ties with France (Emmett 1995:

22). Al-ʿUmar kuma ya ƙarfafa Franciscans su sayi fili su gina coci a Nazareth a shekara ta 1730, sannan ya ba al'ummar Greek Orthodox damar gina Cocin St Gabriel a shekara ta 1767 (Emmett 1995: 220).

22). Al-ʿUmar also encouraged the Franciscans to purchase land and build a church in Nazareth in 1730, and enabled the Greek Orthodox community to build St Gabriel Church in 1767 (Emmett 1995: 220).

Tun daga matsayinta na ƙaramar kasuwa ga ƙauyukan da ke kewaye da ita a ƙarƙashin Dhaher al-ʿUmar, a yau Nazaret ita ce birni mafi girma na Falasdinawa a cikin Isra'ila kuma babban birnin Falasdinawan da ke cikin Isra'ila. A yau zuriyar al-ʿUmar na ci gaba da zama a Galili da Nazaret, kuma ana kiransu 'Dhawahri', domin tunawa da Dhaher, tare da iyalan Fahoum, Zu'bi da 'Onalla, iyalan Musulmi da suka kasance wani ɓangare na manyan masu mallakar ƙasa na gargajiya na birnin Nazaret, waɗanda suka fara samun matsayi a ƙarƙashin mulkin al-ʿUmar kuma suka ci gaba da mamaye siyasar birnin a duk lokacin ƙarshen zamanin Ottoman da na mulkin Mandate na Birtaniya, har ma a ƙarƙashin Isra'ila tun 1948 (Srouji 2003: 187).

Beginning as a market town for the surrounding countryside under Dhaher al-ʿUmar, today Nazareth is the largest Palestinian city in Israel and the capital of the Palestinians inside Israel. Today the descendants of al-ʿUmar still live in Galilee and Nazareth and are known as the ‘Dhawahri’, in memory of Dhaher – along with the Fahoums, Zu’bis and ‘Onallas, the Muslim families which constituted part of Nazareth’s urban traditional Muslim land-owning elite which first rose under al-ʿUmar’s rule and continued to dominate the city’s politics throughout the late Ottoman and British Mandatory periods and under Israel since 1948 (Srouji 2003: 187).

Ana yawan wakilcin siyasa na Falasdinu na zamani sau da yawa ana danganta su da zamanin Daular Usmaniyya na ƙarshe ko kuma da Falasdinu ta ƙarni na 19, kuma alaƙar tarihi ta gaskiya tsakanin "ƙasar Falasdinu" da al'ummar da al-ʿUmar ya kafa da kuma tunanin zamani game da Falasdinu tana da sarkakiya. Duk da haka, a tarihi iyakar da ke tsakanin gaskiya da almara, ko tsakanin tatsuniya da hakika, sau da yawa tana ɓacewa. Ƙasar da ke da cikakken 'yanci a aikace a Falasdinu ta dore kusan rabin ƙarni, tun ƙarshen shekarun 1720 har zuwa 1775, wanda hakan ya fi tsawon lokacin mulkin Mandate na Birtaniya a Falasdinu.

Modern geo-political representations of Palestine are often located in the late Ottoman period or in 19th century Palestine and the actual historical links between the Palestinian ‘statehood’ created by al-ʿUmar and the modern conceptions of Palestine are complex. However, in history the line between fact and fiction or myth and reality is often blurred. The practically independent statehood in Palestine lasted nearly half a century from the late 1720s until 1775, far longer than the British Mandatory period in Palestine.