Nasionalizmin ƙasa na Falasɗinawa, kamar ra'ayin Falasɗin kanta, yana da farawa da asali fiye da ɗaya. A cikin littafinsa Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness (1998), Rashid Khalidi ya yi jayayya cewa wata ƙayyadaddiyar ainihin ƙasa ta Falasɗinawa, wacce ta dogara ga ƙasar Falasɗin, ta fito a farkon ƙarni na 20. Amma, a lokaci guda, Khalidi da wasu fitattun masana tarihin Falasɗin na zamani, ciki har da Beshara Doumani (1995), Ilan Pappe (1999), Baruch Kimmerling da Joel S. Migdal (1993, 2003), duk sun ba da shawarar cewa kafin bayyanar Sihiyoniyanci na siyasa a ƙarshen karni na 19, an riga an fara samar da wata ainihin ƙasa ta cikin gida ta Falasɗinawa (Pappe 1999: 3). Wannan ainihin ƙasa ta Falasɗinawa mai tasowa a ƙarshen zamanin Daular Usmaniyya a Falasɗin ba ta da alaƙa da Sihiyoniyanci. Duk da haka, ko da yake ƙungiyar ƙasa ta Falasɗinawa ta cikin gida mai tasowa ta riga ta bayyanar Sihiyoniyanci a Falasɗin, wannan ƙungiya ta sami ƙarin kuzari daga matsugunan Sihiyoniyawa da ayyukan siyan filaye a lokacin kafin Yakin Duniya na Farko.

Palestinian territorial nationalism, like the idea of Palestine, has multiple beginnings and multiple sources. In Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness (1998), Rashid Khalidi argues that a distinct Palestinian national identity grounded in the land of Palestine emerged in the early 20th century. But, at the same time, Khalidi and several prominent historians of modern Palestine, including Beshara Doumani (1995), Ilan Pappe (1999), Baruch Kimmerling and Joel S. Migdal (1993, 2003), all suggested that before the appearance of political Zionism in the late 19th century, a local Palestinian national identity had been in the making (Pappe 1999: 3). This nascent positive Palestinian national territorial identity in late Ottoman Palestine was not connected to Zionism. However, although an incipient local Palestinian national movement preceded the advent of Zionism in Palestine, this movement was also spurred on by Zionist settlement and land-purchasing activities in the period prior to the First World War.

A cikin Falasdinu ta ƙarshen zamanin Daular Usmaniyya, yawan jama'ar gundumomi uku na Falasdinu (Kudus, Nablus da Akka) galibinsu Musulmai ne da Kiristoci Larabawa. Mabiya addinin Yahudanci sun kai kimanin 25,000; yawancinsu masu zurfin imani ne kuma suna zaune a birane. Har zuwa lokacin da Zionism na Turai ya bayyana a ƙarshen karni na 19, dangantakar da ke tsakanin Falasdinawa (Musulmai, Kiristoci da Yahudawa masu magana da Larabci) ta kasance cikin lumana da kwanciyar hankali, wadda zaman tare na ƙarni da yawa, da tarihi da ƙasa ɗaya suka gina (Khalidi, W. 1984). Tarihin rayuwar Wasif Jawhariyyeh (1897–1972), wani Balarabe Ba'israilin Kirista mazaunin Kudus, wato The Diaries of Wasif Jawhariyyeh, yana ba da shaida mai ƙarfi game da fitowar wata asalin ƙasa ta Usmaniyya mai matakai biyu a Falasdinu ta ƙarshen zamanin Usmaniyya, da kuma game da zaman tare, bambancin al'adu da haɗuwar jama'a a Kudus ta Usmaniyya, wadda ƙaramin misali ce ta zamanin zamani na ƙarshen Usmaniyya a Falasdinu. A duniyar Falasdinu ta ƙuruciyar Jawhariyyeh, iyakokin da ke raba rayuwar Kiristocin Falasdinu, Yahudawan Falasdinu da Musulmin Falasdinu ba su da tsayayyen layi.

In late Ottoman Palestine, the population of the three Palestinian administrative districts (Jerusalem, Nablus and Acre) was overwhelmingly Muslim and Christian Arab. The Jewish minority numbered about 25,000; the majority was deeply religious and urban-based. Until the advent of European Zionism in the late 19th century relations among the Palestinians (Arabic-speaking Muslims, Christians and Jews) were peaceful and stable, forged by centuries of coexistence, shared history and shared country (Khalidi, W. 1984). The memoirs of Wasif Jawhariyyeh (1897– 1972), a Palestinian Christian citizen of Jerusalem, The Diaries of Wasif Jawhariyyeh, provide compelling testimony to the emergence of a two-tier Palestinian Ottoman territorial identity in late Ottoman Palestine and for the co-existence, cultural diversity and intermixing of Ottoman Jerusalem, a microcosm of late Ottoman modernity in Palestine. In the Palestinian world of Jawhariyyeh’s youth, boundaries separating the lives of Palestinian Christians, Palestinian Jews and Palestinian Muslims were fluid.

Zamanantar Urushalima wani abu ne da ya samo asali daga cikin al'amuran cikin gida na Birnin Usmaniyya, kuma ina ba da shawarar cewa tsarin zamantakewar birnin da ke cikin katanga ya fi sassauci sosai fiye da yadda ake tsammani gaba ɗaya; haka kuma ina ba da shawarar cewa tsarin unguwanni, wanda ke nuna rarrabuwar Tsohon Birni zuwa yankuna masu iyaka bisa addini, an gabatar da shi tare da ɗora shi a kan birnin baya-bayan nan ta hanyar dokokin mulkin mallaka na Birtaniya. (Tamari 2006: 28)

Jerusalem’s modernity was a feature of internal dynamics in the Ottoman City and I propose that the social structure of the walled city was much more fluid than generally believed; further I suggest that the quarter system signalling the division of the Old City into confessional bounded domains was introduced and imposed retroactively on the city by British colonial regulations. (Tamari 2006: 28)

A Palestine ya fara juyin juya halin bugawa da wallafa littattafai a ƙarshen zamanin Daular Usmaniyya, kuma ya bunƙasa a matakin masana'antu a rabin farko na karni na 20. Wannan juyin juya hali ya rakiyar gabatar da fasahohin zamani, da karuwar ilimin boko da karatu, da saurin birane. Cikin ɗan gajeren lokaci, zuwa shekara ta 1948, sama da kashi ɗaya bisa uku na al'ummar Larabawan Falasɗinu suna zaune a birane. Tare da yawaitar makarantun zamani na boko a ƙasar, ƙaruwar iya karatu ta karya ikon ƙananan ƙungiyoyin masu ilimi, masu kishin addini a birane kan ilimi da koyo, kuma ta ƙarfafa matsakaitan ajujuwan ma'aikata da ƙwararru da ke tasowa a birane. Ƙaruwar sanin kai na al'adu daga cikin masu ilimi ya haifar da tasowar kishin ƙasa na boko, wanda bai shafi addini ba, a Falasɗinu a ƙarshen zamanin Usmaniyya. Kishin ƙasa na al'adu na Falasɗinawa da kishin ƙasa na yanki ya riga ya gabaci kishin ƙasa na siyasa na Falasɗinawa, kuma makarantu da cibiyoyin horar da malamai a Falasɗinu a ƙarshen zamanin Usmaniyya ne suka renon wannan kishin.

In Palestine the printing and publication revolution began in the late Ottoman period and developed on an industrial scale in the first half of the 20th century. This revolution was accompanied by the introduction of modern technologies, the growth in secular education and literacy and rapid urbanisation. Within a short period, and by 1948, more than one-third of Palestinian Arab society was urban-based. Together with the sharp rise in modern secular schools in the country, increased literacy broke the monopoly of the small, religiously minded, literate elites in the cities on education and learning and bolstered the emerging middle and professional classes in the cities. The increasing cultural self-awareness of educated people led to the rise of secular proto-nationalism in late Ottoman Palestine. Embryonic Palestinian cultural nationalism and territorial patriotism preceded Palestinian political nationalism and this was fostered in schools and teacher training seminaries in late Ottoman Palestine.

A cikin rabin na biyu na karni na 19, makarantun Orthodox na Rasha masu koyar da harsuna biyu da cibiyoyin horar da malamai a Falasdinu sun taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen bunkasa farfadowar al'adu a kasar. Daga baya wadannan makarantu sun zama daga cikin mafi kyau a kasar, suna ba da gudummawa ga wannan farkawar al'adu ta kasa.

In the second half of the 19th century the bilingual Russian Orthodox schools and teacher training centres in Palestine played an important role in promoting cultural renaissance in the country. These schools subsequently came to be among the best in the country, contributing to this national cultural awakening.

Ayyukan Khalil Ibrahim Beidas, Ruhi al-Khalidi da Khalil al-Sakakini sun kasance kololuwar juyin juya halin ilimi, al'adu da adabi na ƙarshen zamanin Daular Usmaniyya a Falasdinu – wani juyin juya halin zamani na al'umma wanda aka sadaukar da shi ga koyar da kai, inganta kai, karfafa zamantakewa, kuma – ta fuskar siyasa – wakilcin kai, daidaiton 'yan ƙasa da cin gashin kai na yanki a cikin Daular Usmaniyya. Majagaba ne a fannin ilimi da al'adu, Beidas (1874–1949) malamin addinin Kirista ɗan Falasɗinu ne, malami, marubucin littattafan labari kuma mai fassara mai yawan gaske na ayyukan adabin Rasha. An haife shi a Nazareth, a cikin Galili, a shekara ta 1874, Beidas ya yi karatu a makarantun Orthodox masu harsuna biyu waɗanda Rasha ke ɗaukar nauyinsu a Galili, kuma ya yi karatu a Makarantar Horar da Malamai ta Rasha da ake matuƙar girmamawa a Nazareth, wadda Ƙungiyar Falasɗinu ta Orthodox ta Daular Rasha ta kafa a shekara ta 1886, daga baya kuma aka samar mata da wani gini da Falasɗinawa a ko'ina cikin Galili suka sani sosai da suna al-Maskubiyyah ('harabar Moscow'). Sauran harabar Rashawa da aka gina a Falasdinu, ciki har da a Ƙudus da al-Khalil (Hebron), har yanzu Falasɗinawan yankin suna kiransu al-Maskubiyyah. Ginin da ya fi shahara wanda Ƙungiyar ta gina a Falasdinu shi ne Cocin Maryamu Magdalene, a Dutsen Zaitun a Ƙudus, wanda aka gina a shekara ta 1886. Da farko an kafa hedikwatar ƙungiyar a Nazareth (tsakanin 1882 da 1884), inda ta buɗe makarantu huɗu a Galili kuma ta ɗauki malamai Larabawa da Rashawa na Orthodox da masu fassara zuwa Larabci don fassara kayan makaranta daga Rashanci zuwa Larabci.

The works of Khalil Ibrahim Beidas, Ruhi al-Khalidi and Khalil al-Sakakini were the high end of the educational, cultural and literary revolution of late Ottoman Palestine – a modernist civic revolution which was dedicated to self-enlightenment, self-improvement, social empowerment and – politically speaking – self-representation, equal citizenship and regional autonomy within the Ottoman state. An intellectual and cultural pioneer, Beidas (1874–1949), was a Palestinian Christian scholar, educator, novelist and prolific translator of Russian literary works. Born in Nazareth, in the Galilee, in 1874, Beidas was educated in Russian-funded bilingual Orthodox schools in the Galilee and studied at the highly regarded Russian Teacher Training Seminary in Nazareth,11 which was founded by the Imperial Russian Orthodox Palestine Society in 1886, and later housed in a building which became famously known to Palestinians throughout the Galilee as al-Maskubiyyah (‘the Moscovite’ compound). Other Russian compounds created in Palestine, including in Jerusalem and al-Khalil (Hebron), are still referred to by local Palestinians as al‑Maskubiyyah. The most famous building constructed by the Society in Palestine was the Church of Mary Magdalene, on Mount of Olives in Jerusalem, built in 1886. Initially headquartered in Nazareth (between 1882 and 1884), the Society opened four schools in the Galilee and employed Orthodox Arab and Russian teachers and Arabic translators to translate school material from Russian to Arabic.

Zuwa shekarar 1899 Ƙungiyar tana da makarantun zamani guda ashirin da uku na "Maskob" a Falasdin, da kuma cibiyoyin horas da malamai guda biyu, ciki har da ɗaya na mata a Beit Jala wanda aka buɗe a shekarar 1890; an nemi garuruwa da ƙauyuka su samar da gine-ginen, amma duk littattafai, littattafan rubutu, alƙalami da fensir, kayan aiki, wuraren wasanni, gudanarwa da koyarwa kyauta ne.12 Yawancin makarantun kuma haɗaɗɗu ne ga yara maza da mata, wanda ya ƙara wani fanni ga sauyin ilimi da Ƙungiyar Orthodox ta Daular Falasdin ta kawo.

By 1899 the Society had twenty-three modern ‘Maskob Schools’ in Palestine, and two Teacher Training Seminaries, including one for women in Beit Jala which opened in 1890; villages and towns were asked to provide the buildings, but all books, notebooks, pens and pencils, equipment, sport facilities, administration and teaching were free of charge.12 Most schools were also co-educational, which added another dimension to the educational revolution introduced by the Palestinian Orthodox Imperial Society.

Tun daga lokacin da ta isa Falasdinu a farkon shekarun 1880, sunan Larabci na Ƙungiyar Ƙasar Rasha (Russian Orthodox Palestine Society) da za a koyar da shi a dukkan makarantun Orthodox na Rasha a Falasdinu, domin Larabci ne harshen koyarwa yayin da Rashanci kuwa dole ne. Sauran harsuna kamar Faransanci, Turanci da Girkanci kuwa zaɓi ne. Bayan shekarar 1889, sunan Larabci na ƙungiyar Rasha ya zama Ƙungiyar Sarautar Orthodox ta Falasdinu. Wannan sigar Larabci ta sunan ƙungiyar ba Beidas kaɗai ya yi amfani da ita ba a duk lokacin karatunsa na firamare da sakandare a Nazareth a farkon shekarun 1890, har ma ana ci gaba da amfani da ita a wallafe-wallafen Kiristocin Orthodox na Falasdinu sama da shekaru 135.13

Soon after its arrival in Palestine in the early 1880s the Arabic rendition of the Russian name (Russian Orthodox Palestine Society) would have been taught in all Russian Orthodox schools in Palestine as Arabic was the instruction language while Russian was compulsory; other languages such as French, Turkish and Greek were voluntary. After 1889 the Arabic rendition of the Russian name became the Palestinian Orthodox Imperial Society . This Arabic version of the Society’s name would have been used not only by Beidas throughout his primary and secondary schooling in Nazareth in the early 1890s, but has also continued to be used in publications by Palestinian Orthodox Christians for more than 135 years.13

Ba wannan kaɗai ba. A ƙarshe, a ranar 1 ga Afrilu 1902, bayan wani lokaci na tattaunawa tsakanin shugabannin Rasha na Ƙungiyar Orthodox ta Daular Rasha a Falasdinu da hukumomin Daular Usmaniyya, sun amince da dukkan makarantu da makarantun koyar da addini guda talatin da bakwai na Ƙungiyar (mafi yawansu suna Falasdinu, wasu kuma a Siriya da Lebanon), kuma an yi bikin wannan lamari da bukukuwan jama'a a Falasdinu, Siriya da Rasha.14 Tasirin wannan amincewa ta hukuma mai muhimmanci daga Daular Usmaniyya ga ayyukan Ƙungiyar Orthodox ta Daular Falasdinu bai tsaya a ilimi kaɗai ba, ya kai har ga ƙarfafa aikin hajji na Rasha mai yawa zuwa Falasdinu, wanda ƙungiyar guda ɗaya ce ta shirya. A farkon karni na 20, mahajjatan Rasha sun kasance kusan kashi 80 cikin ɗari na dukkan mahajjatan Kiristoci baƙi zuwa Ƙasar Tsarki. Kamar yadda za mu gani a ƙasa, wannan aikin hajji mai yawa daga Rasha ya tilasta wa hukumomin Usmaniyya yin ƙarin gyare-gyare na gudanarwa, kuma a shekarar 1906 aka ƙara gundumomin Nazareth da Tiberias zuwa Mutasarrifate na Jerusalem Mai Daraja, musamman don ɗaukar sabon aikin hajji mai yawa daga Rasha da Yamma, da kuma sauƙaƙe bayar da takardar izinin yawon buɗe ido guda ɗaya ga mahajjatan Kiristoci da matafiya a Falasdinu.

Not only that. Eventually on 1 April 1902, after a period of negotiations between the Russian leaders of the Imperial Russian Orthodox Palestine Society and the Ottoman authorities, they recognised all thirty-seven schools and seminaries of the Society (the majority of which were in Palestine, with some in Syria and Lebanon) and the occasion was marked by public celebrations in Palestine, Syria and Russia.14 The impact of this important official Ottoman recognition of the activities of the Palestinian Orthodox Imperial Society extended beyond education into the encouragement of Russian mass pilgrimage to Palestine, which was also organised by the same society. In the early 20th century Russian pilgrims constituted nearly 80 per cent of all foreign Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land. As we shall see below, this Russian mass pilgrimage forced the Ottoman authorities to make further administrative adjustments and in 1906 the districts of Nazareth and Tiberias were added to the Mutasarrifate of Noble Jerusalem, mainly to accommodate the new mass pilgrimage from Russia and the West in facilitating the issuance of a single tourist visa to Christian pilgrims and travellers in Palestine.

Beidas ya kasance kayan aiki na farkawar ilimi da tunani ta Falasdinu ta ƙarshen zamanin Daular Usmaniyya. Haka kuma ya yi amfani da albarkatun ƙasa da na daular, kamar waɗanda Ƙungiyar Ƙasar Rasha ta Ƙungiyar Ƙasar Falasdinu ta Ƙungiyar Orthodox ta Daular Rasha ta samar, don bayyana sabon ra'ayin ainihin Bafalasdine na zamani. Hakika, da yawa daga cikin ra'ayoyin Beidas sun kasance masu tsattsauran ra'ayi har ma masu juyin juya hali bisa ma'aunin Falasdinu ta ƙarshen zamanin Usmaniyya. Bayan ya kammala karatu a Makarantar Horar da Malamai ta Nazareth, Beidas ya koma Urushalima, wadda a lokacin ita ce cibiyar ilimi da al'adu ta Falasdinu a ƙarshen zamanin Usmaniyya. Ya yi aiki a matsayin babban malamin Larabci a Makarantar St George ta Anglican da ke Urushalima, kuma a matsayin mai fassara daga Rashanci zuwa Larabci ga Ƙungiyar Orthodox ta Falasdinu ta Daular Rasha. Ya kuma yi tafiya zuwa Rasha a shekarar 1892.

Beidas was a product of the educational and intellectual awakening of late Ottoman Palestine. He was also utilising local and imperial resources such as those made available by the Russian Palestinian Orthodox Imperial Society to articulate a new sense of modern Palestinian identity. Indeed, many of Beidas’ ideas were also radical and even revolutionary by the standards of late Ottoman Palestine. After graduating from the Teacher Training Seminary in Nazareth, Beidas moved to Jerusalem, then the Palestinian intellectual and cultural capital of late Ottoman Palestine. He worked as a senior Arabic teacher at the Anglican St George’s School in Jerusalem and as a translator from Russian to Arabic for the Imperial Russian Orthodox Palestine Society. He also travelled in Russia in 1892.

Beidas’ na musamman basira ta harsuna da al’adu, da fassarorinsa daga Rashanci zuwa Larabci, sun samu tasiri daga ayyukan manyan marubutan littattafan labari da waƙoƙi na Rasha, ciki har da Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Dostoevsky, Leon Tolstoy da Maxim Gorky. Wasu daga cikin waɗannan marubuta sun ƙirƙiri suka masu tsattsauran ra’ayi game da mulkin kama-karya, hanyoyin jama’a na kallon tarihi, dangantaka da rayuwar talakawa, da kuma jaddada ’yanci da adalci na zamantakewa. Tolstoy yana da kyakkyawar fahimta game da karkarar Rasha da manoman Rasha, kuma hakan ya yi tasiri a kan ra’ayin Beidas mai kyau game da karkarar Falasɗinu da manoman Falasɗinu. Beidas ya riga ya fassara zuwa Larabci, kuma ya buga a Beirut a shekara ta 1898, littafin labarin tarihi na Pushkin mai suna The Captain’s Daughter. Mujallar mako-mako ta Beidas, al-Nafais al-ʿAsriyyah (Modern Gems), an kafa ta shekaru goma bayan haka, a shekara ta 1908, a Haifa, kuma ta fara ne da buga littattafan labari na gargajiya na Rasha waɗanda Beidas ke fassarawa a matsayin jerin labarai. Ana ɗaukar Beidas a matsayin ‘majagaba na gajeren labari na Falasɗinu’ (Raid al-Qissah al-Filastiniyyah) (Mazza 2015: 188).

Beidas’ exceptional linguistic and cultural talents and translations from Russian into Arabic were influenced by the works of leading Russian novelists and poets, including Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Dostoevsky, Leon Tolstoy and Maxim Gorky. Some of these authors had developed radical critiques of autocracy, popular approaches to history, identification with the lives of ordinary people and emphasis on freedom and social justice. Tolstoy had an idealistic view of the Russian countryside and Russian peasantry and this had an impact on Beidas’ positive views of the Palestinian countryside and peasantry. Beidas had already translated into Arabic and published in Beirut in 1898 Pushkin’s historical novel The Captain’s Daughter. Beidas’ weekly periodical, al-Nafais al-ʿAsriyyah (Modern Gems) was founded ten years later in 1908 in Haifa and it began by serialising the Russian classic novels Beidas was translating. Beidas is considered to be the ‘pioneer of the Palestinian short story’ (Raid al-Qissah al-Filastiniyyah) (Mazza 2015: 188)

Kuma a shekarar 1909 ya buga *Halin Zalunci* (Ahwal al-Istibdad), ɗaya daga cikin farkon bayanai masu sukar mulkin zalunci da suka bayyana a harshen Larabci. Edward Said, dangi na kusa da Beidas, ya lura da hikima cewa rubuce-rubucen Beidas na gajerun maƙaloli, gajerun labarai, litattafan tarihi na almara da fassarori, a lokutan kafin yaƙi da bayan yaƙi, sun taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen gina asalin ƙasar Falasɗinu ta zamani na farko (Moore-Gilbert 2009: 182).

and in 1909 he published The Conditions of Tyranny (Ahwal al-Istibdad), one of the earliest critical accounts of tyrannical rule to appear in the Arabic language. Edward Said, a close relative of Beidas, astutely observed that Beidas’ essays, short stories, historical novels and works of translation in the pre- and post-war periods played an important role in the construction of early modern Palestinian national identity (Moore-Gilbert 2009: 182).

Babban furen adabi da waƙoƙin Falasdinu da na Larabawa, da fassarorin littattafai na zamani, da aikin jarida, da gwaje-gwajen ilimi, da tarin littattafai na kashin kai a lokacin mulkin Ottoman na ƙarshe, ya haifar da wata tunawa mai rai game da wannan zamani a Falasdinu, wadda ta fi ƙarfi sosai a cikin al'adun Larabawa na yau da kullum, fiye da tunawa da zamanin Andalus na tsakiya, misali.

The great flowering of Palestinian and Arab literature and poetry, of novel translations, journalism, educational experiments and private library collections during the late Ottoman period created a living memory of the period in Palestine, one much stronger in living Arab culture, than that of the mediaval al-Andalus period, for example.

Ɗakin karatu na sirri na Beidas a Ƙudus, wanda ya ƙunshi littattafai sama da 6000, an kwashe shi tare da sauran ɗakunan karatu na sirri na Falasɗinawa waɗanda Khalil Sakakini da sauran mazauna Ƙudus Falasɗinawa suka mallaka, Isra'ilawa sun wawashe su a lokacin Nakba na 1948, kuma wannan lamari an rubuta shi a cikin The Great Book Robbery.15 Tarin littattafan Beidas da na sauran Falasɗinawa na iya bayyana sosai game da farfaɗowar ilimi da wayewar kan ƙasa ta Falasɗinawa a ƙarshen zamanin Daular Usmaniyya. Misalin wannan sabuwar wayewa yana nan a cikin Gabatarwar ƙasa ta 1898 da ke cikin fassarar Beidas ta A Description of the Holy Land, Vol. 1 na Akim Aleksyeevich Olesnitsky.

Beidas’ own personal Jerusalem library of more than 6000 books was plundered, together with other Palestinian private libraries owned by Khalil Sakakini and other Palestinian Jerusalemites, by the Israelis during the 1948 Nakba and the episode was documented in The Great Book Robbery.15 Beidas’ and other Palestinian library collections can shed a great deal of light on the Palestinian intellectual renaissance and national consciousness in the late Ottoman period. An illustration of this new consciousness is found in the 1898 geographic Preface to Beidas’ translation of Akim Aleksyeevich Olesnitsky’s A Description of the Holy Land, Vol. 1

(also Foster 2016c) – an asalin sigar ta bayyana da Rashanci a shekara ta 187516 – ta Ƙungiyar Ƙasar Falasɗinu ta Orthodox ta Daular Rasha. Beidas ya siffanta wannan a matsayin wallafar Ƙungiyar Orthodox ta Falasɗinu ta Daular Rasha. Beidas ya kuma yi magana game da rashin isassun ayyukan ƙasa da ake da su cikin Larabci kan ƙasarsa 'Falasɗinu', da kuma game da 'ya'yan Falasɗinu' na asali (Abnaa Filastin, أبناء فلسطين) da 'buƙatarsu ta wani babban aikin ƙasa kan ƙasarsu'. Yana rubutu ga masu karatu na cikin gida na Falasɗinawa, kuma ya san cewa yawancin Falasɗinawa za su saba sosai da ma'anoni na asali da ke tattare da kalmar أبناء فلسطين. Beidas ya siffanta aikin Olesnitsky kamar haka: 'wani babban littafi da ke bayyana ƙasar Falasɗinu tare da wuraren ta, koguna, tabkuna, duwatsu da kwaruruka'. Ya kuma yi magana game da amfani da Larabci na magana da zaɓin 'kalmar mai sauƙi wadda ke kusa da tunaninmu'.

(also Foster 2016c) – the original version appeared in Russian in 187516 – by the Imperial Russian Orthodox Palestine Society. Beidas describes this as a publication of the Palestinian Orthodox Imperial Society. Bei Beidas also talks about the inadequate geographical works available in Arabic on his country ‘Palestine’ and about the indigenous ‘sons and daughters of Palestine’ (Abnaa Filastin, أبناء فلسطين ) and ‘their need for an extensive geographic work on their country’. Writing to local Palestinian audiences, Beidas knew that many Palestinians would be closely familiar with the indigenous connotations of the term أبناء فلسطين . Beidas describes Olesnitsky’s work as follows: ‘an extensive book which describes the country of Palestine with its places, rivers, lakes, mountains and valleys’. He also talks about his use of idiomatic Arabic and his choice of ‘the simple expression which is closely related to [our] minds’.

Ayyukan Beidas da kokarinsa sun zama wani muhimmin ci gaba a farkon kishin kasa na zamani na Falasdinu saboda dalilai daban-daban. Abubuwa tara ne ke bambanta gudummawar Beidas ta fuskar ilimi, al'adu da yanki ga zamanin tunanin Falasdinu da kuma bullowar sabon wayewar kai na kasa bisa yanki a karshen karni na sha tara a Falasdinu:

Beidas’ work and activities present a landmark in the emergence of modern Palestinian nationalism for a variety of reasons. Nine factors distinguish the scholarly, cultural and geographic contribution of Beidas to the modern notion of Palestine and the emergence of new a territorial national consciousness in late 19th century Palestine:

• Beidas, ɗan asalin Galili, yana aiki ne daga wata faɗaɗɗiyar fahimta ta zamani game da Falasɗinu – ba kawai daga tunanin zamantakewar addinin Musulunci na tsakiyar zamanin Larabawa ba, wanda ke da alaƙa da lardin tarihi na Jund Filastin.

• Beidas, a native of the Galilee, was working from a modern wider concept of Palestine – and not just from medieval Arab Islamic social memory associated with the historic province of Jund Filastin.

• Beidas yana amfani da kalmomin Falasɗinawa da Falasɗinu lokaci guda kuma ba tare da bambanci ba, wanda alama ce ta rubuce-rubucen Falasɗinawa na zamani.

• Beidas uses the terms Palestinian and Palestine simultaneously and interchangeably, which is a hallmark of modern Palestinian writing.

• Littafin Gabatarwa mai shafuka biyu ya fara da furucin Larabci al-Hamdu Lillah ('Godiya ta tabbata ga Allah', kalmar Larabci don 'Allah'), furucin da Musulmi suke yawan ambata saboda muhimmancinsa ga babin farko na Alkur'ani da kuma sunan Annabi Muhammad ﷺ da maganganunsa.

• The two-page Preface begins with the Arabic expression al-Hamdu Lillah (‘Praise be to Allah’, the Arabic word for ‘God’), an expression frequently invoked by Muslims due to its centrality to the first chapter of the Quran and the name and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad.

Wannan magana kuma Kiristocin masu magana da Larabci suna amfani da ita. Amma abin da ake nufi shi ne cewa aikin yana kan dukkan Falasɗinawa masu magana da Larabci.

This expression is also used by Arabic-speaking Christians. But the implication is that work is aimed at all Arabic-speaking Palestinians.

• Rashin wata ambaton Sihiyoniyya gaba ɗaya – sabanin rubuce-rubucen ƙasa na Falasɗinawa shekaru goma bayan haka, waɗanda misalai mafi shahara daga cikinsu sune jaridar Falastin (1911) da rubuce-rubucen Ruhi al-Khalidi (1913) (duba ƙasa) – wannan yana nuna fitowar wata ƙasa ta Ottoman ta Falasɗinawa mai matakai biyu da farkon farfaɗowar al'adun Falasɗinawa a ƙarshen zamanin Ottoman a Falasɗinu – wannan farfaɗowa ta riga ta bayyana kafin damuwar ƙasa ta gaba game da Sihiyoniyya.

• The complete absence of any reference to Zionism – in contrast with Palestinian national writings a decade later, the most famous examples of which are the newspaper Falastin (1911) and the writings of Ruhi al-Khalidi (1913) (see below) – and this points to the emergence of a two-tier Palestinian Ottoman identity and the beginnings of the Palestinian cultural renaissance in late Ottoman Palestine – a renaissance which preceded the subsequent national preoccupation with Zionism.

• Yadda Beisas ya yi amfani da kalmomin ‘Falasdinu’ da ‘ƙasarmu’ da kuma ‘Ƙungiyar Falasdinawa ta Daular Orthodox’ ba tare da bukatar bayyana ko fassara waɗannan kalmomi ko gabatar da wannan Ƙungiyar ba. Wannan yana nuna abubuwa biyu: (1) Beisas ya yi tunanin cewa masu karatunsa Larabawa za su san waɗannan kalmomi kuma su fahimci abin da yake nufi sosai; (2)

• The ease with which Beisas uses the terms ‘Palestine’ and ‘our country’ and the ‘Palestinian Orthodox Imperial Society’ without the need to define or explain these terms or introduce this Society. This suggests two things: (1) Beisas thought that his Arab readers would be familiar with these terms and have a full understanding of what he meant; (2)

Waɗannan kalmomi da wannan sunan Larabci na Ƙungiyar sun riga sun kasance ana amfani da su kuma ana fahimtar su sosai.

these terms and this Arabic name of the Society were already commonly used and understood.

• Ƙungiyar Daular Orthodox ta Falasɗin ta gudanar da gidan fassara da bugawa a Urushalima, kuma bayan shekarar 1889 ta yi aiki a Falasɗin a dukan shekarun 1890 a ƙarƙashin sunan Larabci: الجمعية الإمبراطورية الأرثوذكسية الفلسطينية, sunan da Beidas ya yi amfani da shi a Gabatarwarsa ta 1898.

• The Palestinian Orthodox Imperial Society ran a translation and publishing house in Jerusalem and after 1889 it operated in Palestine throughout the 1890s under the Arabic name: الجمعية الإمبراطورية الأرثوذكسية الفلسطينية , the name Beidas uses in his 1898 Preface.

Wannan ra'ayin ƙasa ta zamani ta fuskar yanki (ƙasa) na Filastin, wanda wani mutum da aka ilimantar a makarantun zamani na Galili ya gabatar a ƙarshen karni na sha tara, ya bambanta da tsohon ra'ayin yanki na Filastin a addinin Musulunci, wanda malaman Musulunci al-Maqdisi, Mujir al-Din, Khair al-Din al-Ramli da Salih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtashi suka bayyana ko suka ambata a karnonin goma, sha biyar da sha bakwai bi da bi. Ra'ayin Filastin da waɗannan marubuta huɗu na Musulunci da alƙalai suka fahimta ya samo asali ne daga lardin Musulunci na zamani na Jund Filastin, wanda babban birninsa shi ne al-Ramla, amma yankinsa bai haɗa da Galili ba.

• This late 19th century modern geographic (territorial) concept of Filastin advanced by someone educated in the modern schools of Galilee departed from the traditional regional Islamic concept of Palestine described or referred to by the Muslim scholars al-Maqdisi, Mujir al-Din, Khair al-Din al-Ramli and Salih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtashiin in the 10th, 15th and 17th centuries respectively. The conception of Palestine understood by these four Muslim writers and qadis was derived from the medieval Muslim province of Jund Filastin, whose capital was al-Ramla, but whose territory did not include the Galilee.

• A tarihi, sunayen fitattu da aka sani a Falasdinu, kafin Musulunci da kuma a zamanin Musulunci, ana kara sunan gari ga sunan mutum: misalan fitattu ko shahararrun Falasdinawa da aka tattauna a sama sun hada da:

• Historically, names of distinguished individuals before and under Islam in Palestine were augmented by adding town names to individual names: examples of prominent or distinguished Palestinians discussed above included:

• Antiochus na Ascalon, a ƙarni na 2 K.Z. a Filistiya.

• Antiochus of Ascalon, in 2nd century BC Philistia.

• Yesu na Nazarat, a karni na 1 miladiyya.

• Jesus of Nazareth, in the 1st century AD.

• Eusebius na Kaisariya Maritima, a karni na 4 a Palaestina Prima.

• Eusebius of Caesarea Maritima, in 4th century Palaestina Prima.

• Prokopios na Kaisariya Maritima, a karni na 6 a Palaestina Prima.

• Prokopios of Caesarea Maritima, in 6th century Palaestina Prima.

• Al-Maqdisi (na 'al-Quds', wato 'Bature daga Urushalima') a lardin Filastin a karni na 10.

• Al-Maqdisi (of ‘al-Quds’, the ‘Jerusalemite’) in the 10th century province of Filastin.

• Muhammad al-Yazuri: Muhammad Hassan ibn Ali al-Yazuri, daga Yazur, wani gari a gabashin Jaffa a lardin Jund Filastin na daular Fatimiyyah, kuma ya kasance wazirin daular Fatimiyyah daga shekara ta 1050 zuwa 1058.

• Muhammad al-Yazuri: Muhammad Hassan ibn Ali al-Yazuri, from Yazur, a town east of Jaffa in the Fatimid province of Jund Filastin, also vizier of the Fatimid state from 1050 to 1058.

• Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalani (1372–1449), wani fitaccen malamin Sunna na mazhabar Shafi'i a zamanin tsakiya, wanda iyalansa suka samo asali daga 'Asqalan, a Falasdinu ta zamanin Mamluk.

• Ibn Hajar al-ʿAsqalani (1372–1449), a leading medieval Shafi’i Sunni scholar whose family originated in ‘Asqalan, Mamluk Palestine.

• Khair al-Din al-Ramli, 'na Ramla', a karni na 17 a Falasdinu karkashin Daular Usmaniyya.

• Kkair al-Din al-Ramli, ‘of al-Ramla’, in 17th century Ottoman Palestine.

• A matakin mutanen Falasdinu na yau da kullum, an kuma danganta sunayen mutane da garuruwansu na asali, kamar ‘ibn Akka’, ‘ɗan Akka’, ko kuma da kabilarsu:

• On a popular Palestinian level, individual names were also linked to their home towns, such as ‘ibn Akka’, ‘son of Acre’, or after their clan:

Misali, Dhaher al-ʿUmar al-Zaydani ‘na gidan Zaydani’. Hanyoyin gargajiya na gane mutum (ko ‘Yesu na Nazaret’ ko ‘Julian na Norwich’, kimanin 1342–kimanin 1416) sun yaɗu a ko’ina a duniya. A cikin Gabatarwarsa ta 1898, Beidas, wanda aka haifa a Galili, ya yi magana game da ‘’yan Falasdinu’, kalmar gama-gari don ‘mutanen Falasdinu’. Wannan sabuwar hanyar gane mutum ta yanki a ƙarshen karni na 19 ta kasance babban sauyi daga dukkan sauran hanyoyin gargajiya na gane mutum. A karni na 20 hanyoyin gargajiya na gane mutum ba su ɓace gaba ɗaya ba, amma an ƙara musu wannan sabuwar hanyar gane mutum ta yanki da kishin ƙasa (‘’yan Falasdinu’). A farkon shekarun karni na 20, ‘’yan Falasdinu’ na gama-gari (أبناء فلسطين) sun zama sanannu kuma da sunan Sha’b Filastin (شعب فلسطين, ‘mutanen Falasdinu’) da kuma ‘al’ummar Falasdinawa’ (الشعب الفلسطيني). Amma tushen wannan sabon kishin ƙasa na yanki yana cikin ƙarshen karni na 19.

for example, Dhaher al-ʿUmar al-Zaydani ‘of the Zaydani clan’. The traditional forms of identification (whether ‘Jesus of Nazareth’ or ‘Julian of Norwich’, c. 1342–c. 1416) were common throughout the world. In his 1898 Preface, the Galilee-born Beidas talks about the ‘sons of Palestine’, a generic term for the ‘people of Palestine’. This distinct territorial form of identification in the late 19th century is a radical departure from all other traditional forms of identification. In the 20th century the traditional forms of identification did not disappear completely, but they were augmented by this new form of territorial identification and patriotic consciousness (the ‘sons of Palestine’). In the early decades of the 20th century the collective ‘sons of Palestine’ ( أبناء فلسطين ) also became known as Sha’b Filastin ( شعب فلسطين , ‘people of Palestine’) and the ‘Palestinian people’ ( الشعب الفلسطيني ). But the roots of this new territorial national consciousness are found in the late 19th century.

• A yau Ƙungiyar tana aiki a fili, tana gudanar da ayyukan zamantakewa da ilimi iri-iri a Falasɗinu da Gabas ta Tsakiya a ƙarƙashin sunan Larabci da aka ambata a cikin Gabatarwar Bedas ta 1898: الجمعية الإمبراطورية الأرثوذكسية الفلسطينية. A watan Yuni da Yuli na 2012, domin tunawa da cika shekaru 130 da kafuwar Ƙungiyar da fara aikinta a Falasɗinu a shekara ta 1882, Ƙungiyar ta buɗe Cibiyar Kimiyya da Al'adu ta Rasha a Baitalahm, kuma ta shirya bukukuwa iri-iri a Moscow da gwamnatin Rasha ta dauki nauyinsu. Shekaru biyu bayan haka, a ranar 3 ga Satumba, 2014, an ƙaddamar a hukumance da reshen Galili na Ƙungiyar Orthodox ta Falasɗinu ta Daular Rasha a Cibiyar Orthodox ta Larabawa da ke Nazareth, wanda duk da sauyin yanayin Nazareth, ya kiyaye sunan 'Falasɗinu' mai shekara 132 ba tare da canji ba. Daga cikin masu jawabi a wannan biki na hukuma a Nazareth akwai wakilan gwamnatin Rasha, da Hanna Abu Hanna, na Haifa, marubucin wani sabon littafi a Larabci mai taken Farkon Farfaɗowar Falasɗinu, wanda ya yi lacca kan muhimman ayyukan al'adu na Ƙungiyar a ƙarshen zamanin Daular Usmaniyya a Falasɗinu. Haka kuma, yana da kyau a lura cewa ɗalibai Falasɗinawa da yawa da suka yi karatu a "makarantun al-Maskob" a ƙarshen zamanin Usmaniyya daga baya sun shiga jam'iyyun kishin ƙasa na Falasɗinu a lokacin mulkin Mandate na Birtaniya; wasu kuma sun shiga Jam'iyyar Kwaminisanci ta Falasɗinu (PCP) a wannan lokacin.

• Today the Society operates publicly and runs various social and educational projects in Palestine and the Near East under the Arabic rendition of the name cited by Bedas in his 1898 Preface: الجمعية الإمبراطورية الأرثوذكسية الفلسطينية . In June and July 2012, to mark the 130th anniversary of the Society’s foundation and start of its operation in 1882 in Palestine, the Society opened the Russian Centre for Science and Culture in Bethlehem and staged various celebrations in Moscow sponsored by the Russian government. Two years later, on 3 September 2014, a Galilee branch of the Imperial Russian Orthodox Palestinian Society was officially launched at the Arab Orthodox Centre in Nazareth which, despite the change in the circumstances of Nazareth, kept the 132-year-old ‘Palestinian’ name intact. Speakers at this official Nazareth ceremony included Russian official representatives and Hanna Abu Hanna, of Haifa – author of a recent work in Arabic on The Beginnings of the Palestinian Renaissance – who lectured on the seminal cultural activities of the Society in late Ottoman Palestine. It is also worth noting that a significant number of Palestinians educated in ‘al-Maskob schools’ in late Ottoman Palestine later joined Palestinian national parties during the British Mandatory period; some also joined the Palestine Communist Party (PCP) during the same period.