A cikin karni na 18 da na 19, jigilar alkama da auduga daga tashar jiragen ruwa ta Falasdinu ta Akka zuwa Italiya, kudancin Faransa (Beheiry 1981: 67) da Ingila sun taimaka wajen ceton yawan al'ummar Faransa da ke karuwa daga yunwa, kuma sun ciyar da juyin juya halin masana'antu na Ingila da tashin jari-hujjar kayayyaki a Turai. Wannan ya haifar da tashin wani sabon masu hannu da shuni na gida a biranen Falasdinu (a Akka, Nazarat, Tiberiya, Nablus, Urushalima da Yafa).

In the 18th and 19th centuries, wheat and cotton shipments from the Palestinian port of Acre to Italy, southern France (Beheiry 1981: 67) and England helped save the growing population of France from famine and fuelled the English Industrial Revolution and the rise of commodity capitalism in Europe. This brought about the rise of a local bourgeoisie in urban Palestine (in Acre, Nazareth, Tiberias, Nablus, Jerusalem and Jaffa)

kuma a matsayin noma na talakawa mai nufin fitarwa zuwa Turai, saboda wannan kasuwa ta zama mafi riba. Wannan matsayi a karni na 18 ya canza noma da masana'antu na Falasdinu daga biyan bukata ta kai zuwa samar da kaya don kasuwar duniya, kuma ya kawo sabuwar alaka tsakanin manyan birane da garuruwa, da daruruwan kauyuka inda mafi yawan mutane ke zaune da aiki. Wannan karuwar cinikayyar kasa da kasa tare da karuwar jari-hujja ta Turai, da bukatar Birtaniya mara iyaka ta auduga ga masana'antunta, ya kuma haifar da farkon zamanantarwa a Falasdinu. Hikimar da aka saba yi game da zamani a duniyar Larabawa ta mayar da hankali kan siyasar manyan mutane masu daraja (a'ayan), mamayar Napoleon ko raunin gwamnatin Usmaniyya a matsayin hadin abubuwa a bayan fara zamanantarwa a yankin (Baram 2007a: 16). Bugu da kari, hikimar da masana tarihi suka yi tsayuwa a kai ita ce, zamanantarwar farko a Falasdinu mishan-mishan na Turai da masu binciken Littafi Mai Tsarki suka fara kawo ta a karni na 19, ko kuma manyan birane masu ilimi irin na Turai ko makarantun da ke karkashin kariyar Usmaniyya suka yada ta. Tanzimat na Usmaniyya (ma'ana zahirinta 'sake tsarawa') – zamani na manyan gyare-gyare 'daga sama' wanda ya fara a shekarar 1839 kuma ya kare da zamanin Kundin Tsarin Mulki na farko na Usmaniyya a 1876 – da tasirinsu a kan Falasdinu da gabashin Larabawa baki daya ne suka fi samun kulawar masana. Duk da haka, sabbin shaidu sun saba wa hanyoyin mulki na masu fifiko, da na Orientalist masu soyayya, da na masu mai da hankali kan Littafi Mai Tsarki wajen nazarin tarihin Falasdinu na zamani. Wannan shaida ta nuna, na farko, cewa farkon zamanantuwa (modernities) ya faru ne a Falasdin a karni na 18; na biyu, cewa mamayar Napoleon a Falasdin da kewaye birnin Akka a shekarar 1799 sun biyo baya ne, ba su ne suka jagoranci al'adun kayan masarufi da kayayyakin Turai ba (ciki har da yadin Turai), waɗanda suka zama ruwan dare a yawancin biranen Falasdin da yankunan karkara a lokacin mulkin al-ʿUmar da al-Jazzar (Baram 2007a, 2007b); na uku, cewa sabon tattalin arziki da sabbin kayan aikin noma na Falasdin a tsakiyar karni na 18 sun riga sun haɗu sosai cikin cinikayyar duniya ta zamani da tattalin arzikin jari-hujja na Turai, wanda juyin juya halin fasaha da masana'antu na Birtaniya ya kawo.

as well as a peasant economy directed towards export to Europe, as this became the more lucrative market. This move during the 18th century transformed Palestinian agriculture and industry from subsistence towards production for the international market, and brought about a new relationship between (larger) cities and towns, and the hundreds of villages where most people lived and worked. This increasing international trade with the growing capitalism of Europe, and the insatiable British demand for cotton for its mills, also ushered in early modernities in Palestine. The conventional wisdom about modernity in the Arab world focus on the elite notable (a’ayan) politics, the Napoleonic invasion or the Ottoman state’s weaknesses as a mix of factors behind the start of modernisation in the region (Baram 2007a: 16). Furthermore, the conventional wisdom advanced by historians is that early modernities in Palestine were first imported by European missionaries and biblical explorers in the 19th century or disseminated by urban elites educated in European-style schools or schools which operated under Ottoman patronage. The Ottoman Tanzimat (literally ‘reorganisations’) – a period of major reforms ‘from above’ that began in 1839 and ended with the Ottoman First Constitutional era of 1876 – and their impact on Palestine and the wider Arab East have been given most scholarly attention. Yet the new evidence contradicts elitist, romantic Orientalist and biblicist approaches to modern Palestinian history. This evidence shows, first, that the start of modernities was in 18th century Palestine; second, that the Napoleonic invasion of Palestine and siege of Acre in 1799 followed rather than led the European material culture and commodities (including European textiles) which became widely available in much of urban and rural Palestine throughout the rules of al-ʿUmar and al-Jazzar (Baram 2007a, 2007b); third, that the ‘new’ economy and new agricultural tools of Palestine in the mid-18th century had already been significantly integrated within the modern international trade and European capitalist economy which had been ushered in by the British technological and industrial revolutions.

Ko da yake juyin juya halin bugawa da na ilimi na Turai bai isa Falasdinu ba sai a ƙarshen karni na 19, juyin juya halin masana'antu na Ingila a karni na 18 da hawan jari-hujjar Turai sun shafi tattalin arzikin Falasdinu kai tsaye kuma sosai. Waɗannan sabbin ƙarfi kuma sun taimaka wajen sauya alkiblar Falasdinu zuwa Turai da samar da sabon tsarin tattalin arziki da siyasa da kuma sabuwar jiha a tsakiyar karni na 18 a Falasdinu, jihar da ta kasance mai cin gashin kanta a zahiri daga Daular Usmaniyya da ta raunana, kuma wacce shugaban Falasdinu Dhaher al-ʿUmar al-Zaydani (1689–1775) ke jagoranta. Mutanen Safad asali, Zaydawa za su saba da al'adun gida da tunanin al'umma game da lardin Safad a zamanin Mamluks: 'Masarautar Safad' ( مملكة صفد ). Da goyon bayan sojojin zamani na ƙwararru da mafi yawan manoman Falasdinu, sun tsayar da sojojin Usmaniyya tare da kayar da su, suka kafa jihar da ta yi nasarar ɗora ikonta da mulkinta na zahiri a kan yawancin Falasdinu ta zamani, duk da cewa manyan birane da masu mulki na Nablus da Kudus da yawa sun ƙi ta.

Although the European printing and educational revolutions did not catch up with Palestine until the late 19th century, the English Industrial Revolution of the 18th century and rise of European capitalism impacted on the economy of Palestine directly and profoundly. These new forces also contributed to the reorientation of Palestine towards Europe and creation of a new political economy and statehood in mid-18th century Palestine, a statehood that was effectively independent of the weakened Ottoman Empire, and which was headed by Palestinian leader Dhaher al-ʿUmar al-Zaydani (1689–1775). Natives of Safad, the Zaydanis would have been familiar with the local traditions and social memories of the province of Safad under the Mamluks: ‘Kingdom of Safad’ ( مملكة صفد ). Backed by a professional modern army and most of the Palestinian peasantry, the latter stood up to and defeated the Ottoman army and created a statehood which managed to impose its power and practical sovereignty on much of modern Palestine, despite being resented by many of the Palestinian urban elites of Nablus and Jerusalem.

Ra'ayin cikakken iko na doka ya sami sauyi mai zurfi a zamanin zamani, daga kasancewarsa tun asali yana fitowa daga mai mulki (mutum ko sarki) zuwa kasancewarsa yana da alaƙa da ra'ayin ƙasa mai iyaka ta ƙasa-ƙasa na zamani. Duk da haka, jiha, iko da halascin mulki sun kasance tushen ma'anar iko. A karni na sha takwas, ikon aiki na gwamnatin al-ʿUmar ba ya fitowa daga wani ra'ayin zamani na ƙasa-ƙasa ba, sai dai daga ikon gwamnatin al-ʿUmar na sanya halastaccen iko a kan yawancin yankin Falasɗinu.

The concept of formal sovereignty has undergone radical transformation in the modern era, from being historically derived from the sovereign (person or ruler) to being linked to the territorial concept of the modern nation-state. However, state, power and legitimacy remain central to the notion of sovereignty. In the 18th century the practical sovereignty of al-ʿUmar’s regime was not derived from any modern notion of the nationstate, but from the ability of al-ʿUmar’s regime to impose legitimate power on much of Palestine.

Dangane da waɗannan muhimman abubuwan da suka faru a Falasdinu, hanyar tarihi "daga ƙasa" da "daga cikin al'umma" na iya bayyana, a wani ɓangare, tashin Dhaher al-ʿUmar al-Zaydani da zamanantar farko a Falasdinu, maimakon ra'ayoyin zamanantarwa da ke mayar da hankali kan manyan masana al'adu na birane a ƙarni na 18 da na 19, ko ayyukan mishan na Turawa a ƙarshen zamanin Daular Usmaniyya a Falasdinu, ayyukan da suka karkata ga birnin Falasdinu inda yawancin Kiristocin Falasdinu ke zama. Haƙiƙa, al-ʿUmar za a iya ɗaukar sa a matsayin wanda ya kafa zamanantar Falasdinu ta farko da sabunta al'umma, kuma shi ne mafi tasiri a farkon sake fasalin Falasdinu zuwa yankin Bahar Rum. A ƙarni na 18, yawancin al'ummar Falasdinu (musulmai galibi) manoma ne da ke zaune a ƙauyuka ko ƙananan garuruwa, tare da 'yan manyan cibiyoyin kasuwanci na birane. Kalmar "zamani" a Falasdinu ta ƙarni na 18 ita ce jadid (sabo) ko tajdid (sabuntawa, ƙirƙira), kuma ta fara ne a waɗannan ƙananan garuruwa da ƙauyuka na Galili. Jagoranci mai ƙarfi na yankin a Galili na ƙarni na 18 da zamanantarwa sun bayyana ta hanyoyi daban-daban:

In view of these dramatic developments in Palestine, a history ‘from below’ and ‘from within’ approach can partly explain the rise of Dhaher al-ʿUmar al-Zaydani and early modernities in Palestine rather than theories of modernities which focus on metropolitan cultural elites in the 18th and 19th centuries or European missionary activities in late Ottoman Palestine, activities which centred on urban Palestine where the majority of the Palestinian Christians resided. Indeed al-ʿUmar can easily qualify as the founding father of early Palestinian modernities and social renewal, and the single most influential figure in the beginning of the modern reorientation of Palestine towards the Mediterranean region. In the 18th century the majority of the Palestinian population (predominantly Muslim) were peasants who lived in villages or small towns, with a few large urban trading centres. The term for ‘modern’ in 18th century Palestine was jadid (new) or tajdid (renewal, innovation), and it began in these small towns and villages of the Galilee. Powerful local leadership in 18th century Galilee and modernities manifested themselves in a variety of ways:

• Fitowar wata sabuwar mulkin kai na Falasdinu, karkashin Dhaher al-ʿUmar da Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (1720–1804), mulkin da ya zama mai zaman kansa daga hukumomin Daular Usmaniyya da kuma masu manyan birane.

• The emergence of a new Palestine-based autonomous rule under both Dhaher al-ʿUmar and Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (1720–1804), a rule independent of both the Ottoman authorities and urban elites.

• Sabbin ci gaban noma da fasaha a Falasdinu, wadanda suka amfani mafi yawan manoman Falasdinu, sun fara ne a karni na sha takwas – suna gabanin kuma suna hasashen tashin kishin kasa na masu arziki na birane a Falasdinu da akalla karni guda – kuma sun shafi samar da noma a Falasdinu sosai. Karuwar fitar da amfanin gona da kayayyakin birane na Falasdinu zuwa kasashen duniya da na yankin ta bayyana a fitar da auduga, man zaitun, alkama da sabulu na Falasdinu.

• New agricultural and technological innovations in Palestine which benefited the majority of Palestinian peasantry began in the 18th century – preceding and anticipating the rise of local urban Palestinian bourgeois ‘nationalism’ by at least a century – and deeply affected the agricultural production of Palestine. The considerable growth of international and regional export of Palestinian agricultural produce and urban products was shown in the export of Palestinian cotton, olive oil, wheat and soap.

Haƙƙin mallakar keɓantaccen da gwamnatin Falasɗinu ta yi kan fitar da auduga, alkama da man zaitun masu yawa zuwa Turai, da kuma fitar da kayan amfanin gona da kayayyakin Falasɗinu zuwa ƙasashen duniya da na yankin, ya samar da sabon jari mai matuƙar muhimmanci da aka zuba a cikin harkokin ci gaban ƙasar.

• Palestinian state monopoly on the flourishing cotton, wheat and olive oil export to Europe and the international and regional export of Palestinian produce and products generated much-needed new capital for investment in the country.

Faɗaɗuwar ƙananan garuruwa da ƙauyuka da kuma gina sababbin wuraren birane a Falasɗinu a rabin na biyu na ƙarni na 18, da farkon bambanta tsakanin "tsoffin wurare" da "sababbin wurare" (al-ʿImarah al-Jadidah), an lura da shi daga marubuta da dama.

• The expansions of small towns and villages and construction of ‘new’ urban spaces in Palestine in the second half of the 18th century and the beginning of a distinction between the ‘old spaces’ and ‘new spaces’ (al-ʿImarah al-Jadidah) was noted by several authors.

Dangane da tsarin Emirate na Dutsen Lebanon makwabci kuma mai cin gashin kansa (1516‒1841), jagoranci mai inganci na al-ʿUmar, goyon bayan jama'a daga yawancin manoman Falasdinu, da hulɗar kasuwanci ta ƙasashen waje da Faransawa da Ingilishi, duk sun haifar da kafuwar dawlah qutriyyah a Falasdinu, sabuwar jiha da ƙwararrun 'yan asalin ƙasar ke tafiyar da ita kuma take dogara da ita, wadda ikonta ya kai daga Lebanon zuwa Gaza, kuma babban birninta na zamani shi ne Akka. Wannan dawlah qutriyyah ta Falasdinu ta canza Akka daga ƙaramin ƙauye zuwa babban birni mai katanga da arziki. A yawancin ƙarnin 18 da farkon ƙarni na 19, Akka, a zahiri da kuma a aikace, tana aiki a matsayin babban birni na biyu na Falasdinu ta zamani. Shigo da auduga na Faransa daga Falasdinu da makamancinsu na Ingilishi bayan Juyin Masana'antu da tashin sababbin fasahohin Ingilishi, tare da buƙatarsu marar ƙarewa ta auduga, tare da sabuwar kasuwancin auduga, man zaitun, siliki da yadi a yanki da ƙasashen duniya, duk sun taimaka wajen canza noman Falasdinu da wuraren birane a yawancin ƙasar. An ƙirƙiri sababbin wuraren birane da unguwanni a manyan birane kamar Akka da Nablus, waɗanda suka sa waɗannan biranen ba kawai su zama mafi girma da wadata a Falasdinu ba, har ma suna cikin manyan biranen al-Sham (Doumani 1995; Philipp 2001). Tashar jiragen ruwa ta Akka da aka faɗaɗa (tare da ƙaramar tashar Jaffa) ta ci gaba da zama babbar hanyar ƙasa da ƙasa zuwa da daga Falasdinu a yawancin ƙarnin 18 da 19. Bayan raguwar masana'antar auduga ta Falasdinu, bakin teku na Akka da Nablus, tare da al-Quds/Urushalima, sun kasance har yanzu manyan biranen "sababbi" guda uku a Falasdinu, kuma suna da muhimmanci sosai a sake tsara gwamnatin Daular Usmaniyya a kasar a shekarun 1870, kamar yadda za mu gani a kasa. Mutasarrifate na Urushalima Mai Daraja da Sanjaks na Akka da Nablus sun kasance cibiyar sauyin tunani (na juyin-halitta) a sake fahimtar Falasdinu a karshen zamanin Usmaniyya. Juyin-juya-halin masana'antu na Birtaniya shi ma ya ba da gudummawa a kaikaice ga bayyanar "jiha" ta farko ta zamani a Falasdinu, mai tushe a Galili, a rabin na biyu na karni na 18.

Inspired by the model of the neighbouring and autonomous Emirate of Mount Lebanon (1516‒1841), al-ʿUmar’s effective leadership, popular backing by much of the Palestinian peasantry and international trading relations with the French and British all brought about the creation of a dawlah qutriyyah in Palestine, a new state driven by and based on an indigenous agency, whose authority extended from Lebanon to Gaza, and whose modern capital was Acre. This Palestinian dawlah qutriyyah transformed Acre from a small village into a fortified and rich urban metropolitan centre. Throughout much of the 18th and early 19th centuries Acre, effectively and to all practical purposes, functioned as the second capital of modern Palestine. French cotton imports from Palestine and similar British imports following the Industrial Revolution and the rise of ‘new’ British technologies, with their insatiable demand for cotton, together with the new regional and international trade in cotton, olive oil, silk and textiles, all helped transform Palestinian agriculture and urban spaces in much of the country. New urban spaces and neighbourhoods were created in key cities such as Acre and Nablus, making these cities not only into the biggest and wealthiest centres in Palestine but also among the largest cities of al-Sham (Doumani 1995; Philipp 2001). The newly expanded port of Acre (together with the smaller port of Jaffa) remained the main international gateway to and from Palestine throughout much of the 18th and 19th centuries. After the decline of the Palestine cotton industry, coastal Acre and Nablus, together with al-Quds/Jerusalem, were still the three most important ‘new’ urban centres in Palestine and were central to the Ottoman administrative reorganisation of the country in the 1870s, as we shall see below, the Mutasarrifate of Noble Jerusalem and the Sanjaks of Acre and Nablus were central to the new (evolutionary) paradigm shift in the reconceptualisation of late Ottoman Palestine. The British industrial revolution also contributed indirectly to the emergence of the first modern Galilee-based ‘state’ in Palestine in the second half of the 18th century.

A Turai, a karni na 18, an yi ta yaɗuwa ra'ayin cewa Falasɗinu ƙasa ce daban, kebe daga Siriya, kuma taswirori masu yawa na 'Palaestina/Palestina' da aka yi a wannan karnin sun nuna wannan ƙaruwar ra'ayi game da Falasɗinu. A shekara ta 1747, a cikin London Modern Gazetteer (shafi na 65), Thomas Salmon, marubucin ilimin ƙasa na Ingila kuma marubucin Modern History, or the Present State of all Nations (1744–1746) – wanda ya samar da 'takaitaccen bayani game da al'ummomi daban-daban na duniya' – ya bayyana Falasɗinu kamar haka:

In Europe throughout the 18th century the perception of Palestine as a distinct ‘country’, separate from Syria, was widespread and the plethora of European maps of ‘Palaestina/Palestina’ produced in that century reflected this growing perception of Palestine. In 1747, in the London Modern Gazetteer (p. 65), Thomas Salmon, an English geography writer and author of Modern History, or the Present State of all Nations (1744–1746) – which provided ‘a short view of the several nations of the world’ – described Palestine as follows:

FALASɗINU, wani yanki ne na Turkiyya ta Asiya, yana zaune tsakanin digiri 36 zuwa 38

PALESTINE, a part of Asiatic Turkey, is sit.[uated] between 36 and 38

digiri na E. Lon.[gitude] da kuma tsakanin digiri 31 zuwa 34 na N. Lat.

degrees of E. Lon.[gitude] and between 31 and 34 degrees of N. Lat.

[itude], wanda Dutsen Libanus ya raba shi da Siriya a Arewa, Dutsen Hermon ya raba shi da Arabiya Deserta a Gabas, tsaunukan Seir da hamadun Arabiya Petraea a Kudu, sannan Tekun Bahar Rum a Yamma, har ya zama kamar an kare shi sosai daga mamayar baki ... Gabaɗaya kasa ce mai albarka, tana samar da hatsi, ruwan inabi da mai da yawa inda ake noma ta.2

[itude], bounded by the mount Libanus, which divides it from Syria, on the N.[orth], by mount Hermon, which separates it from Arabia Deserta, on the E.[ast], by the mountains of Seir, and the deserts of Arabia Petraea, on the S.[outh], and by the Mediterranean Sea on the W.[est], so that it seems to have been extremely well secured against foreign invasions ... It is generally a fruitful country, producing plenty of corns, wine, and oil where it is cultivated.2

A mahimmanci, ikon siyasa da ainihin iko a Galili a karni na 18 ba sakamakon tsarin majibinci da abokin ciniki na shugabancin birane ba ne, haka kuma ba su samo asali daga hukumomin Daular Usmaniyya na tsakiya ba; a zahiri sun samu ne "daga cikin" kasa da "daga kasa", kuma cikin kin amincewa da gwagwarmayar soji ta hakika ga Daular Usmaniyya. Manoma Falasdinawa da yawa ne suka goyi bayansa, wasu daga cikin manyan birane masu goyon bayan Usmaniyya kuma suka ki shi. Yayin da ikon Usmaniyya ke raguwa sosai, sababbin ci gaban fasaha da kasuwanci a Turai da kuma gwagwarmayar neman 'yancin kai ta 'yan asalin Falasdinu suka fito daga cikin karkarar Galili a tsakiyar karni na 18. Abubuwa da dama ne suka taimaka wajen wannan ci gaba mai tsauri.

Crucially, political power and practical sovereignty in the Galilee in the 18th century was not the outcome of the imperial patron‒client system of the urban leadership, nor did it derive from the central Ottoman authorities; in fact it evolved ‘from within’ and ‘from below’, and in defiance and actual military resistance to the Ottoman Empire. It was backed by many Palestinian peasants and resented by some of the Ottoman-backed urban elites. With the sharp decline of the Ottoman power, new technological and commercial developments in Europe and indigenous Palestinian struggle for autonomy emerged from within the Galilee countryside in the mid-18th century. Several factors contributed to this radical development.

Ɗayan waɗannan ya kasance saboda:

One of these was due to:

Matsayin Acre na musamman. A fannin siyasa, yanki ne mai cin gashin kansa – mai zaman kansa a wani bangare, idan ba cikakken 'yanci ba, daga cibiyar daular da kuma FILISDIN: TARIHIN SHEKARU DUBU HUDU 224

[new A]cre’s exceptional status. Politically, it was an enclave – semiautonomous, if not completely independent of the center of empire and PALESTINE: A FOUR THOUSAND YEAR HISTORY 224

Ita gudanarwarsa ce. Wannan ya fara ne lokacin da wani shugaban yankin, Daher al-ʿUmar, ya kafa kansa a matsayin mai mulki mai cin gashin kansa a birnin. Ikirarin mulkinsa da ya bayyana kansa ya fadada tare da fassara shi a kan wani sikelin ma fi girma daga magajinsa, Jazzar Pasha. (Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 519‒520)

its administration. This began when a local chieftain, Daher al-ʿUmar, established himself as an independent ruler in the city. His self-declared sovereignty was expanded and interpreted on an even broader scale by his successor, Jazzar Pasha. (Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 519‒520)

Ci gaban birnin Acre da lardinsa na ban mamaki a zamanin nan ya nuna sama da komai yadda Falasɗin ta karkata zuwa Turai a karni na 18 – wannan karkatarwa kuwa, sabanin karkatarwar da daulolin sarauta irin su Romawa, Umayyawa da Ayyubid/Mamluk suka yi a baya, wani shugaba mai karfi dan asalin Falasɗin ne ya tsara ta. Hakika, Acre ta zama babban birnin Dhaher al-ʿUmar al-Zaydani tsawon kusan shekaru talatin, daga 1746 zuwa 1775, kuma ta zama daya daga cikin manyan biranen kasuwanci guda biyu mafiya karfi a Falasɗin; dayan kuma shi ne Nablus.

The astonishing modern rise of the city and province of Acre represented more than anything else the dramatic reorientation of Palestine towards Europe in the 18th century – a reorientation which, unlike previous reorientations of the country by imperial dynasties including the Roman, Umayyad and Ayyubid/Mamluk, was engineered by a powerful indigenous Palestinian leader. Indeed, Acre became the capital of Dhaher al-ʿUmar al-Zaydani for nearly thirty years, from 1746 to 1775, and one of two most powerful trading cities in Palestine; the other one was Nablus.

Ba abin mamaki ba ne cewa Acre ta ci gaba da zama babban birnin magajin al-ʿUmar, Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, Gwamnan Pashalik na Ottoman – a zahiri, wata 'lardi' – na Acre daga 1776 har zuwa mutuwarsa a 1804. Mamayar Acre ta ci gaba har zuwa farkon karni na 19. Bayan mutuwar al-Jazzar, Gwamnonin Ottoman na Acre, Suleiman Pasha al-‘Adil (d. 1819)

Not surprising, Acre also remained the capital of al-ʿUmar’s successor, Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, Governor of the Ottoman Pashalik – in reality, a ‘province’ – of Acre from 1776 until his death in 1804. The dominance of Acre continued well into the early 19th century. After the death of al-Jazzar the Ottoman Governors of Acre, Suleiman Pasha al-‘Adil (d. 1819)

da kuma ‘Abdullah Pasha (ya rasu a 1831) ya yi mulki a yawancin Falasɗin da Lebanon da Dimashƙu daga babban birninsu na Falasɗin, Acre.

and ‘Abdullah Pasha (d. 1831) ruled much of Palestine and Lebanon and Damascus from their Palestinian capital of Acre.

Wannan sake fasalin Falasdinu zuwa yankin Bahar Rum/Turai da kuma saurin tashin birnin Akka na zamani a karni na 18 sun fara ne tare da bayyanar al-ʿUmar a Galili da nasarorinsa na soja, bisa goyon bayan manoman Falasdinu. Samun ikon mulkin kai a Falasdinu da manoma suka yi ya samu ne sakamakon ci gaban fasaha da masana'antu na juyin juya hali a Turai. Birnin tashar ruwa na bakin teku, Akka, ya kasance sanannen sansanin Yakin Salibiyya. A karnoni da suka biyo bayan Yakin Salibiyya birnin ya fada cikin mantuwa, kuma a lokacin mamayar Ottoman tsohon Akka ya zama karamin kauyen masunta (Philipp 2001: 1). A karkashin Mamluks da kuma tsawon farkon zamanin Ottoman, garin Safad ya maye gurbin tsohon Akka a matsayin babban birnin gudanarwa na Galili. Duk da haka, a tsakiyar karni na 18 Akka ta zamani ita ce ta farko daga cikin manyan wuraren da ke bakin tekun Bahar Rum na Falasdinu da suka sake dawo da matsayinsu cikin sauri a matsayin sabuwar, mai kuzari, babbar birnin tashar ruwa, bayan koma baya mai tsanani da biranen bakin teku suka fuskanta a zamanin bayan Salibiyya karkashin Ayyubids da Mamluks (Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 520; Philipp 2001: 1). Amma a shekara ta 1785 Akka ta zamani ta zama daya daga cikin manyan birane a Falasdinu, kuma birni na uku mafi girma a al-Sham, bayan Damascus da Aleppo (Philipp 2001: 1).

The spectacular reorientation of modern Palestine towards the Mediterranean region/Europe and the dramatic rise of modern Acre in the 18th century began with the emergence and military successes of al-ʿUmar in Galilee, backed by the Palestinian peasantry. The latter’s achievement of autonomous power in Palestine was spurred by revolutionary technological and industrial developments in Europe. The coastal port city of Acre had been a famous Crusade stronghold. In the centuries following the Crusades the city had slipped into oblivion and by the time of the Ottoman conquest old Acre had become a small fishing village (Philipp 2001: 1). Under the Mamluks and throughout the early Ottoman period the town of Safad replaced old Acre as the administrative capital of the Galilee. Yet in the middle of the 18th century modern Acre was the first of the major sites along Palestine’s Mediterranean coast that quickly renewed its function as a ‘new’, dynamic, major port city following the sharp decline of the coastal cities in the post-Crusader period under both the Ayyubids and Mamluks (Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 520; Philipp 2001: 1). But by 1785 modern Acre had become one of the largest cities in Palestine and the third largest city in al-Sham, after Damascus and Aleppo (Philipp 2001: 1).