阿拉伯地理学与制图学的辉煌一直延续到中世纪晚期。1154年，正值拉丁十字军耶路撒冷王国鼎盛之时，巴勒斯坦出现在阿拉伯学术巨著《Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi’khtirāq al-Afaq》（意译为《渴望穿越地平线者的乐趣》）的世界地图上。该书由安达卢斯阿拉伯地理学家与制图学家穆罕默德·伊德里西（1100–1165）编撰，他是当时最杰出的地理学家。此书在拉丁世界中以“Tabula Rogeriana”（阿拉伯语：Kitab Rujar，即《罗杰之书》）和“Opus Geographicum”之名广为人知，是伊德里西的地理学杰作，内容包括对已知世界的描述以及一幅世界地图，地图上以阿拉伯文标注着“Filastin”。

The glories of Arab geography and cartography continued well into the late Middle Ages and in 1154, at the height to the Latin Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, Palestine was mentioned on the world map of the Arabic magnum opus, Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi’khtirāq al-Afaq (translated as The Pleasure of Him who Longs to Cross the Horizons), produced by Andalusian Arab geographer and cartographer Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165), the foremost geographer of his age. Becoming famous in Latin as the Tabula Rogeriana (Arabic: Kitab Rujar, The Book of Roger) and Opus Geographicum, al-Idrisi’s masterpiece of geographical information and a description of the known world included a world map, showing Filastin in Arabic.

考虑到阿勒-伊德里西是在十字军攻占耶路撒冷之后数十年间进行工作的（他出生于那次胜利的次年），当时人们对巴勒斯坦的关注达到了前所未有的高度，包括该地区在内的地图和文献都颇为抢手。

Bearing in mind that al-Idrisi was working decades after the Crusaders’ victory in Jerusalem (he was born a year after), interest in Palestine was at an all-time high, and maps and literature including the country were sought after.

阿尔·伊德里西定居于巴勒莫。当时的巴勒莫是一个正在崛起的地中海强国的首都，也是基督教与阿拉伯穆斯林文化共存交融（convivencia）的中心。他在诺曼王朝国王罗杰二世的宫廷中，花了十五年时间编写地图的注释并绘制插图。罗杰二世是十二世纪上半叶西西里王国的建立者，拥有多元的文化背景，他约在1138年委托完成了这项工作（Houben 2002:

Al-Idrisi had settled in Palermo, then the capital of a rising Mediterranean power and a centre of Christian and Arab Muslim cultural convivencia, and had worked on the commentaries and illustrations of the map for fifteen years at the court of the Norman King Roger II, the founder of the Kingdom of Sicily in the first half of the 12th century, with a mixed cultural heritage, who commissioned the work around 1138 (Houben 2002:

102‒104;Maqbul 1992)。阿尔-伊德里西曾广泛游历欧洲、北非和西亚,并从穆斯林旅行者、水手和商人那里收集信息。受托勒密《世界地图》(前文已讨论)的启发,阿尔-伊德里西的《世界地图》要先进得多,在之后的三个世纪里,地理学家将他的地图视为最精确的地图,并原样照抄,不加改动(Scott 1904:461‒462;Maqbul 1992;Edson 2007:42‒43)。

102‒104; Maqbul 1992). Al-Idrisi travelled extensively in Europe, North Africa and West Asia and gathered information from Muslim travellers, sailors and merchants. Inspired by Ptolemy’s Map of the World (discussed above), al-Idrisi’s Map of the World was far more advanced and for the next three centuries geographers treated his map as the most accurate and copied it without alteration (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992; Edson 2007: 42‒43).

1592年，《Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi-Ikhtiraq al-Afaq》的一个节略阿拉伯文版本在罗马出版，书名为《De Geographia Universali》（Maqbul 1992；al-Idrisi 1592）。该书由罗马的学术性美第奇出版社（Medic Press）印制，是最早印刷的阿拉伯文书籍之一。（Hopkins and Levtzion 2000:

An abridged Arabic version of Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi-Ikhtiraq al-Afaq was published in Rome in 1592 with title: De Geographia Universali (Maqbul 1992; al-Idrisi 1592). Printed by Rome’s academic Medic Press, this was one of the first Arabic books to be printed. (Hopkins and Levtzion 2000:

（104–131）。现存最完整的阿拉伯文手抄本，包含世界地图和全部七十幅分区地图，收藏于伊斯坦布尔（Pinto 2006: 140）。

104–131). The most complete Arabic manuscript, which includes the world map and all seventy sectional maps, is kept in Istanbul (Pinto 2006: 140).

一个半世纪后,伊德里西的世界地图问世,巴勒斯坦又出现在另一幅世界地图上,这次绘制者是马里诺·萨努多(约1270–1343),一位威尼斯商人,曾多次前往巴勒斯坦,并根据旅行经历绘制地图。萨努多也是一位公共人物和地理学家,因其毕生致力于在1291年阿卡(拉丁王国的最后一座首府)陷落后复兴拉丁十字军东征而广为人知。对威尼斯人而言,赚钱、海上贸易与为圣地而战的十字军东征是相辅相成的。阿卡陷落后,随着其巨大财富(以及加利利和黎巴嫩沿海大部分地区)的丧失,威尼斯人及其欧洲盟友突然失去了利润丰厚的贸易、当地港口、大量物质财产、居住区、教堂、修道院,以及阿卡著名的宗教军事骑士团,如圣殿骑士团、医院骑士团和条顿骑士团。到1307年,萨努多已写成《圣地条件》一书,实际上是一部关于十字军计划以及欧洲重新征服巴勒斯坦的战略指南。阿卡的地图被收入萨努多的这部著作中(Edson 2004: 133)。此外,在14世纪初萨努多的大多数手稿中都出现了一幅世界地图。

A century and a half after Idrisi’s world map was produced, Palestine was found on another world map, this time by Marino Sanudo (c. 1270– 1343) a Venetian merchant who travelled to Palestine a number of times and drew maps based on his travels. Sanudo was also a public figure and geographer who became widely known for his lifelong attempts to revive the Latin Crusades following the fall of Acre, the last capital of the Latin Kingdom, in 1291. For the Venetians, money-making, maritime trade and crusading for the Holy Land went hand in hand. Suddenly, with the loss of the considerable wealth of Acre (and much of the Galilean and Lebanese coasts), the Venetians, and their European allies, had lost lucrative trade, local harbours, considerable material assets, residential quarters, churches, monasteries and the famous religio-military Orders such as the Templars, Hospitallers and Teutonic Knights in Acre. By 1307 Sanudo had written a book, Conditiones Terrae Sanctae, effectively a strategic manual for crusading schemes and for European reconquest of Palestine. A map of Acre was included in Sanudo’s book (Edson 2004: 133). Also, a world map appeared in most of Sanudo’s manuscripts of the early 14th century.

历史学家埃芙琳·埃德森写道：

Historian Evelyn Edson writes:

东地中海的地图……展示了萨努多所提议的战役的主要作战区域,它既是一幅海图,也是一幅内陆地图的结合……小亚细亚南岸、巴勒斯坦与埃及的海岸以及塞浦路斯岛沿线,排列着一系列港口的名称。

The map of the Eastern Mediterranean … which shows the main theatre of operations for Sanudo’s proposed campaign, is a combination of a marine chart and a map of the interior … Lined up along the southern coast of Asia Minor, and the shores of Palestine and Egypt and the island of Cyprus, is a series of names of ports.

在巴勒斯坦沿海地区，这些地名旁标有以英里表示的距离。在内陆地区，标示则模糊得多的是一些较大的地理要素，例如底格里斯河和幼发拉底河，以及美索不达米亚、波斯和迦勒底等地区。（Edson 2004: 139）

On the coast of Palestine these are accompanied by indications of distances in miles. In the interior, much more vaguely indicated, are larger features such as the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the countries of Mesopotamia, Persia and Chaldea. (Edson 2004: 139)

近三个世纪以来，阿拉伯和欧洲的地理学家、制图学家与历史学家都把伊德里西的世界地图视为最精确的地图，并且毫无改动地加以抄袭（Scott 1904: 461‒462；Maqbul 1992:

For nearly three centuries al-Idrisi’s world map was treated by Arab and European geographers, cartographers and historians as the most accurate and they copied it without alteration (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992:

156‒174)。15世纪中叶,意大利制图师、修士弗拉·毛罗(卒于1464年)绘制的世界地图取代了12世纪阿尔·伊德里西的地图。弗拉·毛罗生活在威尼斯共和国,同时也为葡萄牙国王工作。年轻时,毛罗曾作为商人和士兵广泛游历,熟悉近东地区。

156‒174). In the mid-15th century the mappa mundi of Fra Mauro (died 1464), an Italian cartographer and monk who lived in the Republic of Venice but also worked for the Portuguese kings, came to replace al-Idrisi’s map from the 12th century. In his youth, Mauro had travelled extensively as a merchant and a soldier and became familiar with the Near East regions.

1450年，马乌罗完成了一幅世界地图，这幅地图成为当时最为详尽和精确的世界地图。马乌罗的资料来源包括古典作家、托勒密的《地理学》，也包括阿拉伯制图学家以及12世纪伊德里西的地图。

In 1450 Mauro completed a world map, which became the most detailed and accurate map of the world up to that time. Among Mauro’s sources we find classical authors and Ptolemy’s Geography as well as Arab cartographers and the 12th century maps of al-Idrisi.

马乌罗的世界地图出于宗教政治与实用目的而标注了“Palaestina”。如果说十二世纪阿尔-伊德里西的地图是受西西里国王罗杰二世委托绘制，服务于一个与巴勒斯坦有宗教联系、从事地中海贸易的基督教王国，那么马乌罗的地图则是受葡萄牙国王阿方索五世委托，服务于正在崛起的全球性葡萄牙帝国。不过，“耶稣之地”对这位意大利修士以及前往圣地（Terra Sancta）朝圣的基督徒而言都处于核心地位。然而，由于地图上还要容纳其他众多地名，巴勒斯坦／圣地的面积被大大压缩，马乌罗也感到不得不为此致歉。

Mauro’s world map mentions Palaestina for religio-political and practical purposes. If al-Idrisi’s map in the 12th century was commissioned by King Roger II of Sicily and in the service of a trading Mediterranean Christian kingdom with religious connections to Palestine, Mauro’s map was commissioned by King Alfonso V of Portugal in the service of the rising global Portuguese Empire. But the ‘land of Jesus’ was central to the Italian monk and to Christian pilgrims to Terra Sancta. However, the size of Palestine/ Terra Sancta is considerably reduced by having to accommodate all the other places on the map and Mauro feels he had to apologise for this:

“知识渊博的人会在此处加上以东、巴勒斯坦和加利利的内容，即我未曾展示的那些事物，例如约旦河、提比里亚海、死海以及其他地方，因为这里的空间不够。”（Edson 2007: 151）

‘Those who are knowledgeable would put here in Idumea, Palestine and Galilee things which I have not shown, such as the river Jordan, the sea of Tiberias, the Dead Sea and other places, because there was not enough room’ (Edson 2007: 151).

15世纪后期起，欧洲文艺复兴时期的印刷革命和印刷术的传播，开启了思想大规模流通的时代，对圣地/巴勒斯坦的大众再现产生了相当大的影响。在欧洲和意大利文艺复兴时期，巴勒斯坦/圣地的制图再现也急剧增加。约1480年，《现代巴勒斯坦与圣地》（"Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta"）地图在佛罗伦萨出版，收入弗朗切斯科·贝林列里（Francesco Berlinghieri）增订版的托勒密《地理学》（Geographia，意为"地理"）中。贝林列里是意大利文艺复兴时期的学者和外交官，是第一位解释、扩充并重新出版这位2世纪希腊地理学家著作的现代欧洲人。据称，《现代巴勒斯坦与圣地》地图以桑努多‒韦斯孔特地图（Sanudo‒Vesconte map）为基础，后者是一幅巴勒斯坦地图，由皮耶特罗·韦斯孔特（Pietro Vesconte，活跃于1310至1330年间）与马里诺·桑努多（Marino Sanudo）制作，约于1320年首次在威尼斯出版。¹韦斯孔特是热那亚出身的制图师、地理学家和航海图绘制者，在威尼斯工作。他还为马里诺·桑努托（Marino Sanuto）的《忠实者的秘密之书：收复与守护圣地的十字军》（Liber secretorum fidelium cruces super terrae sanctae recuperatione et Conservatione）绘制了世界地图、航海图集、巴勒斯坦地图以及阿卡和耶路撒冷的平面图。该书论述贸易路线，旨在鼓动新的拉丁十字军东征，为军事收复圣地提供指南（Edson 2004: 139；Bagrow 2010: 69‒70）。尽管新的军事十字军的构想逐渐消退，桑努多‒韦斯孔特地图以及《现代巴勒斯坦与圣地》系列地图，仍注定要在直至18世纪的时间里，为欧洲人投射欧洲的权力，并提供关于巴勒斯坦的现代再现图像。

The printing revolution in Renaissance Europe and the spread of the press from the late 15th century onwards introduced an era of mass circulation of ideas with considerable impact on the mass representation of the Holy Land/Palestine. In the European and Italian Renaissance era cartographic representations of Palestine/the Holy Land also increased sharply. The map of ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ was published in Florence around 1480 and was included in Francesco Berlinghieri’s expanded edition of Ptolemy’s Geographia (Geography). Berlinghieri, an Italian Renaissance scholar and diplomat, was the first modern European to interpret, expand upon and republish the works of the 2nd century Greek geographer. Apparently the ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ map was based on the Sanudo‒ Vesconte map of Palestine, a map produced by Pietro Vesconte (who was active between 1310 and 1330) and Marino Sanudo, first published in Venice around 1320.1 Vesconte was a Genoese cartographer, geographer and navigational chart-maker who worked in Venice. He also provided a world map, nautical atlas, a map of Palestine and plan of Acre and Jerusalem for inclusion in Marino Sanuto’s Liber secretorum fidelium cruces super terrae sanctae recuperatione et Conservatione, a work which discusses trade routes and was aimed at encouraging a new Latin crusading campaign, providing a manual for the military reconquest of the Holy Land (Edson 2004: 139; Bagrow 2010: 69‒70). Although gradually ideas of new military crusades began to subside, the Sanudo‒Vesconte map and the maps of ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ were destined to project European power and provide modern representational images of Palestine for the Europeans until the 18th century.

欧洲的印刷革命使得在十八世纪期间，欧洲能够出版并流通数十幅详细的“巴勒斯坦/Palaestina”地图。1714年，荷兰制图师、语文学家兼圣经东方学家哈德良·雷兰德（Hadrianus Relandus）出版了《依据古代文献阐释的巴勒斯坦》（*Palaestina ex monumentis Veteris illustrata*），以地图来阐释巴勒斯坦的地理。在奥斯曼帝国，书籍和地图的印刷直到1729年才开始。

The European printing revolution made it possible for dozens of detailed maps of ‘Palestina/Palaestina’ to be published and circulated in Europe throughout the 18th century. In 1714 Palaestina ex monumentis Veteris illustrata by Dutch cartographer, philologist and biblical Orientalist Hadrianus Relandus illustrated the geography of Palestine with maps. In the Ottoman Empire, the printing of books and maps started only in 1729

1803年，在伊斯坦布尔出版的奥斯曼《新地图集》（Cedid Atlas Tercümesi，意为《新地图集译本》），部分内容基于欧洲的地理知识，也借鉴了当时欧洲的制图方法。这部地图集是奥斯曼帝国当时行政与军事改革“新制度”框架下的产物，其中收录了一幅巴勒斯坦（Filastin）及大沙姆（bar‑Sham，即沙姆腹地）地图，地图左下方以大号阿拉伯文字书写着阿拉伯语词组“Ard Filastin”（“巴勒斯坦之地”；拼写较为特别，写作 ارض فلاستان ）。如下文所示，这部奥斯曼新地图集的出版，比载有以阿拉伯文书写“Palestine”和“al-Quds之地”（ فلسطين أو أرض قدس ）地图的《雅克坦地图集》（Jacotin Atlas）早了二十三年。

and in 1803 the Ottoman Cedid Atlas Tercümesi (A Translation of a New Atlas), published in Istanbul, was partly based on European geographical knowledge as well as European map-making methods of the day. Published within the framework of the ‘new system’ of the Ottoman administrative and military reforms of the time, the New Atlas included a map of Filastin and bar‑Sham (hinterland of al‑Sham) with the Arabic term Ard Filastin (‘Land of Palestine’; written in a peculiar way: ارض فلاستان ) shown in large Arabic script on the bottom left of the map. As we shall see below, the publication of this new Ottoman atlas preceded the publication of ‘Jacotin Atlas’, which had a map using the Arabic script for ‘Palestine’ and the ‘land of al-Quds’ ( فلسطين أو أرض قدس ) by twenty-three years.

在十九世纪，欧洲浪漫主义的十字军复兴思潮渗透于艺术、宗教热忱与政治之中，英国对巴勒斯坦的实际渗透则被包装成一场“和平十字军”，并以圣经东方主义的面目出现。

In the 19th century European romantic Crusader revivalism in art, religious fervour and politics and British actual penetration of Palestine were repackaged in the form of a ‘peace crusade’ and biblical Orientalism.

这种逐步渗透在奥斯曼帝国晚期的巴勒斯坦达到了顶点：1917年11月的亲犹太复国主义的《贝尔福宣言》发表，同年英国实际军事占领了巴勒斯坦。

This gradual penetration of late Ottoman Palestine culminated in the pro-Zionist Balfour Declaration of November 1917 and the actual British military occupation of Palestine in 1917.