8.7 通过原住民的眼睛阅读现代巴勒斯坦史 - 巴勒斯坦:四千年的历史 | Quran Course

8.7 通过原住民的眼睛阅读现代巴勒斯坦史 - 巴勒斯坦:四千年的历史 | Quran Course

欧洲的影响在达赫尔·阿尔-欧麦尔“现代化”和开明的治理中十分明显。这些早期的现代化努力之所以得以推行，是因为该国保守的宗教权威——即巴勒斯坦各城市的穆夫提所掌握的权力——始终从属于政治权威。意大利古董研究者、科学家兼旅行家乔瓦尼·菲利波·马里蒂于1760年抵达阿卡，在法国人聚居区居住了两年。他在《游历塞浦路斯、叙利亚与巴勒斯坦》一书中，描述了欧洲思想对达赫尔·阿尔-欧麦尔的首府阿卡所产生的影响。他记述了阿卡总督对当时肆虐的瘟疫迅速做出的反应，那场瘟疫不仅影响巴勒斯坦，也波及埃及和叙利亚。大大小小的流行病（有时还伴随饥荒）是中世纪巴勒斯坦反复出现的现象，造成了该国极高的死亡人数。在第一次和第二次世界大战期间，巴勒斯坦的地中海港口城市也曾发生小规模流行病。然而，1760年，开明的阿尔-欧麦尔果断行动，摒弃宗教迷信，实施了预防措施，包括在阿卡实行严格的检疫，并对进出该城的商人采取限制措施；这些措施有助于将疫情对这座人口稠密的城市的影响降到最低，挽救了许多生命。

European influences on the ‘modernising’ and enlightened administration of Dhaher al-ʿUmar were much in evidence. These early modernisation efforts were facilitated by the fact the conservative religious authority in the country, which rested with the muftis in the cities of Palestine, was always subordinate to the political authority. Italian antiquarian, scientist and traveller Giovanni Filippo Mariti, who arrived in Acre in 1760 and resided in the French quarter for two years, writes in Travels Through Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine about the influence of European ideas on the capital of Dhaher al-ʿUmar, Acre. He describes the swift response of the Governor of Acre to the then raging plague which was affecting not only Palestine but also Egypt and Syria. Large and small epidemics (occasionally combined with famine) had been a recurrent feature of medieval Palestine with devastating effects in terms of the high death toll in the country. Small epidemics also occurred in the Mediterranean port cities of Palestine during the First and Second World War. Yet in 1760 the enlightened al-ʿUmar acted decisively, brushing aside religious superstitions and imposing precautionary measures including a strict quarantine in Acre and measures affecting traders entering and leaving the city; these measures helped to minimise the effect of the epidemic on the crowded city and saved many lives:

al-ʿUmar与埃及的穆罕默德·阿里（1769–1849）相似，而与巴勒斯坦纳布卢斯和耶路撒冷的奥斯曼城市精英不同，他是一个破除规则者、一个制定统治秩序者，而非遵从规则者。这些城市精英所处的地位使他们在权力关系中处于从属状态，其影响力、权威和重要性都低于他们的帝国奥斯曼“制定规则者”。相比之下，al-ʿUmar实际上独立的政权是在与奥斯曼在巴勒斯坦的统治直接对立、并向其权威发起挑战的情况下建立的，同时在名义上承认奥斯曼哈里发的合法性。al-ʿUmar的权威是在伊斯兰合法性与权力的框架内运作的，而巴勒斯坦的伊斯兰历史也产生了多种关于权力、权威和合法性的观念。al-ʿUmar的国家曾被其反对者称为酋长国（sheikhdom），已故的阿尔伯特·侯拉尼（Albert Hourani）则称其为“小王国”（引自Joudeh 2015），但更为恰当的描述是，它在四分之一多世纪里大部分时间内是巴勒斯坦大部分地区一个具有主权的“边疆国家”。不过，在更广泛的伊斯兰历史权力与合法性语境中，它也可以被描述为一个埃米尔国（emirate）。历史上，埃米尔国是由穆斯林埃米尔、苏丹、酋长、军事指挥官、总督或亲王统治的地缘政治实体或国家。从词源上看，emirate或amirate（阿拉伯语：imarah）指埃米尔所管辖的领土实体的行政体系，该阿拉伯词也可以隐含公国之意。在伊斯兰统治之下，直到近代，埃米尔国都是一种普遍的治理形式和实际的国家形态。埃米尔国的种类繁多，其中著名的包括科尔多瓦埃米尔国，它是安达卢斯地区于756年至929年间的一个独立国家，以科尔多瓦为首都。最初承认大马士革倭马亚哈里发的合法性，实际上科尔多瓦埃米尔国不仅是在与阿拔斯国家直接对立、拒绝巴格达阿拔斯哈里发的情况下成长起来的，而且还演变并转变为科尔多瓦哈里发国。该国以科尔多瓦为首都，存在于929年至1031年间，在当时是世界上最发达的国家之一。同样在安达卢斯，格拉纳达埃米尔国（又称格拉纳达纳斯尔王国；西班牙语：Reino Nazarí de Granada）建立于1248年，与基督教的卡斯蒂利亚王国结盟，并在接下来的250年里一直是附庸国。它是伊比利亚半岛最后一个由穆斯林统治的国家。数个世纪之后，在18世纪中叶阿勒-欧麦尔在巴勒斯坦权势达到顶峰之时，科威特于1750年代成为一个埃米尔国，由科威特的谢赫统治。19世纪后期，科威特埃米尔国成为英国的保护国，此后逐渐发展为一个现代国家。如果阿勒-欧麦尔的政权在其创建者于1775年去世后得以存续，并一直延续到19世纪，那么今天巴勒斯坦的现代历史就会以巴勒斯坦原住民的眼光来书写和解读，而不是通过奥斯曼、英国或犹太复国主义的视角。

Al-ʿUmar, like Muhammad ‘Ali of Egypt (1769–1849) and unlike the Palestinian Ottoman urban elites of Nablus and Jerusalem, was a rulebreaker and a ruler-maker, not a rule-taker, These urban elites were in a subordinate state of affairs where the power dynamic put them at a position of less influence, authority and significance than their imperial Ottoman ‘rule-maker’. By contrast, al-ʿUmar’s effectively independent regime was created in direct opposition and as a challenge to the authority of the Ottoman rule in Palestine, while nominally acknowledging the legitimacy of the Ottoman Caliph. Al-ʿUmar’s authority operated within the context of Islamic legitimacy and power and Islamic history of Palestine produced a variety of notions of power, authority and legitimacy. Al-ʿUmar’s state has been referred to by its detractors as a sheikhdom, while the late Albert Hourani referred to it as a ‘little kingdom’ (cited in Joudeh 2015), but it would be more appropriate to describe it as a sovereign ‘frontier state’ in most of Palestine for over a quarter of a century. However, it could be described as an emirate within the wider historical Islamic context of power and legitimacy. Historically an emirate was a geo-political entity or state that was ruled by a Muslim emir, sultan, sheikh, military commander, governor or prince. Etymologically emirate or amirate (Arabic: imarah) is the administration of territorial entity of an emir. The Arabic term could also imply principality. Under Islam, and until recently, emirates were a common form of governance and actual statehood. The variety of emirates included the famous Emirate of Córdoba, which was an independent state in Andalusia between 756 and 929, with Córdoba as its capital. Initially acknowledging the legitimacy of the Umayyad Caliphs in Damascus, in fact the Emirate of Córdoba not only grew in direct opposition to the Abbasid state and rejection of the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad, but also evolved and transformed itself into the Caliphate of Córdoba. With its capital in Córdoba, this state existed from 929 to 1031 and was at the time one of the most developed countries in the world. Also in Andalusia, the Emirate of Granada (also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada; Spanish: Reino Nazarí de Granada), was established in 1248 and aligned with the Christian Kingdom of Castile, and remained a tributary state for the next 250 years. It was the last state in the Iberian Peninsula to be ruled by Muslims. Several centuries later, at the height of al-ʿUmar’s power in Palestine in the mid-18th century, Kuwait became an emirate in the 1750s, headed by the Shaykh of Kuwait. In the late 19th century the Emirate of Kuwait became a British protectorate and it has since evolved into a modern state. Had al-ʿUmar’s state survived the death of its founder in 1775 and persisted well into the 19th century, today the modern history of Palestine would be read and written with the eyes of the indigenous people of Palestine, rather than through Ottoman, British or Zionist perspectives.

在18世纪中叶,阿尔-欧麦尔的"加利利政权"(dawlah qutriyyah)与阿尔-贾扎尔强大的自治政权,对欧洲和奥斯曼晚期的思想界,以及现代巴勒斯坦人的心理与记忆所产生的持久影响,怎样估计都不为过。18世纪中叶,阿尔-欧麦尔将加利利的权力中心从萨法德(及萨法德州)转移到阿卡,并把阿卡改造成黎凡特地区最大、最富庶、防御最坚固的城市之一。因此,1799年拿破仑·波拿巴企图征服该城却未能得手,绝非偶然。七十年后,即19世纪70年代初——正如我们将在第九章看到的——奥斯曼人重新组织了巴勒斯坦,并设立阿卡州(sanjak),作为该国三个行政区之一。从1266年到18世纪初的近五个世纪里,萨法德一直是加利利的首府;1517年之后,奥斯曼人通过设立萨法德行政州,确认了它在加利利的行政地位。鉴于萨法德在马穆鲁克和奥斯曼两个时期都统治加利利和巴勒斯坦北部达数百年之久,奥斯曼晚期设立阿卡州,也应被视为18世纪阿尔-欧麦尔与阿尔-贾扎尔统治下的巴勒斯坦留给奥斯曼晚期对巴勒斯坦的认知及行政重组的持久遗产之一。

The lasting impact of al-ʿUmar’s dawlah qutriyyah and al-Jazzar’s powerful autonomous regime on both European and late Ottoman thinking as well as on the modern Palestinian psyche and memories can hardly be overstated. In the mid-18th century al-ʿUmar shifted the centre of power in Galilee from Safad (and the Liwa of Safad) to Acre, a town which al-ʿUmar transformed into one of the biggest, wealthiest and most well-fortified cities of the al-Sham region. It is hardly a coincidence, therefore, that in 1799 Napoleon Bonaparte sought but failed to conquer the city. Seventy years later, in the early 1870s – as we shall see in chapter nine – the Ottomans reorganised Palestine and created the sanjak of Acre as one of three administrative regions in the country. For nearly five centuries from 1266 until the early 18th century, Safad was the capital of the Galilee and after 1517 the Ottomans confirmed its administrative position in Galilee by creating the administrative sanjak of Safad. In view of the fact that the Safad had dominated the Galilee and northern Palestine for centuries under both the Mamluks and Ottomans, the creation of the sanjak of Acre in the late Ottoman period should also be counted as one the lasting legacies of 18th century Palestine under al-ʿUmar and al-Jazzar for the late Ottoman perception, and administrative reorganisation, of Palestine.