Haj mavsumida Makkaga borishga qodir bo‘lmagan minglab kishilar Quddusga keladi. Ular al-Haram (muqaddas qadamjo)ga yaqinlashadi va odat bo‘yicha qurbonliklar keltiradi. Ba’zi yillarda bu yerda 20 000 dan ortiq [musulmon] kishi Haj farizasini ado etadi ... Nasroniylar va yahudiylar ham nasroniylar yurtidan bu yerga keladi. (Nosir Xusrav, 1050 yil, Matar 2013: 913 dan keltirilgan)

During the season of pilgrimage [Muslim Haj], thousands who cannot travel to Mecca, come to Jerusalem. They approach the sanctuary [al-Haram] and offer sacrifices as is customary. In some years, over 20,000 [Muslim] people fulfil the [Haj] law here ... Christians and Jews come here too, from the land of the Christians. (Nasir Khusro, 1050 AD, cited in Matar 2013: 913)

Arab Islom viloyati Jund Filastin Umaviy va Abbosiy davrida al-Shomning harbiy-ma'muriy viloyatlaridan biri bo'lib, Levantning musulmonlar tomonidan fath etilishidan (milodiy 630-yillar oxiri) ko'p o'tmay tashkil etilgan. Rasmiy nomi, Jund Filastin, islomning ilk davridan boshlab musulmon hukmdorlar va Filastinning arab hokimlari (voliylar), arab va musulmon geograflari, kartograflari, tarixchilari, tarjimonlari, gravyorlari, tanga zarb qiluvchilari, ziyoratchilari va savdogarlari tomonidan keng qabul qilingan. Ularning barchasi Falastin va Yaqin Sharqning klassik merosiga tayangan. Arab ma'murlari, tarixchilari va geograflari Falastinning ko'plab qadimiy joy nomlarini, shuningdek, Levantda Yunoniston va antik davrning klassik merosining ko'p qismini ham tarjima qilib, saqlab qolganlar.

The Arab Islamic province of Jund Filastin was one of the military/ administrative provinces of the Umayyad and Abbasid region of al-Sham, provinces organised soon after the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the late 630s. The official name, Jund Filastin, was universally adopted from early Islam onwards by Muslim rulers and Arab governors of Filastin (walis), Arab and Muslim geographers, cartographers, historians, translators, engravers, coiners, pilgrims and merchants. They all relied on the classical heritage of Palestine and the Near East. Arab administrators, historians and geographers also translated and preserved many of the ancient place names of Palestine and much of the classical heritage of Greece and Antiquity in the Levant.

Islom ziyorati Quddusga juda erta boshlangan, va bu muqaddas shaharning ulug'vorligi va markaziyligi hamda Umaviylar davridagi Filastin (661‒749) tufayli yanada kuchaygan, buni ortiqcha baholash qiyin. Sahro toshi gumbazi (Qubbatu-s-Sahra) 688 yil orasida Umaviy islom tomonidan qurilgan birinchi monumental ziyoratgoh bo'ldi.

Islamic pilgrimage to Jerusalem began very early and this was enhanced by the grandeur and centrality of the holy city and Umayyad Filastin (661‒749), which can hardly be overstated. The Dome of the Rock was the first monumental sanctuary erected by Umayyad Islam between 688

...va 691 (Murphy-O’Connor 2012: 27). Umaviylar, rimliklar va Vizantiyaliklar singari, Falastinda shaharlashuvni rivojlantirdilar. Ular, shuningdek, mamlakatning ko‘p dinliligi va umumiy merosini hurmat qildilar hamda Vizantiyaliklarning ko‘plab ma’muriy an’analari va me’moriy uslublarini davom ettirdilar. Vizantiyalik nasroniylar uchun bo‘lgani kabi, musulmon arablar uchun ham Falastin (Muqaddas Yer: arabcha:

and 691 (Murphy-O’Connor 2012: 27). The Umayyads, like the Romans and Byzantines, promoted urbanisation in Palestine. They also respected the multifaith and shared heritage of the country and continued many of the Byzantines’ administrative traditions and architectural styles. For the Muslim Arabs, as for the Byzantine Christians, Palestine (Holy Land: Arabic:

al-Ard al-Muqaddasah [al-Maqdisi 2002: 135]; ivrit tilida: Eretz HaKodesh)

al-Ard al-Muqaddasah [al-Maqdisi 2002: 135]; Hebrew: Eretz HaKodesh)

va Quddus alohida, muqaddas makon edi. Quddusning muqaddasligi va markaziyligi uning arabcha nomida mujassam: Bayt al-Maqdis (“muqaddaslik uyi”) yoki al-Quds (“muqaddas”). An'anaviy musulmon qarashiga ko‘ra, dastlabki musulmonlar ibodat qilgan yo‘nalish — qibla (arabcha: “yo‘nalish”) dastlab Quddusdagi Muqaddas Qasrga qarab turgan. Bu muqaddas shahar doimo islomiy ehtirom va ziyorat markazi bo‘lib kelgan.

and Jerusalem were a special, sacred space. The sanctity and centrality of Jerusalem is enshrined in its very Arabic name: Bayt al-Maqdis (the ‘house of the holy’) or al-Quds (the ‘holy’). According to the traditional Muslim view, the Qibla (Arabic: ‘direction’), the direction in which the first Muslims had prayed, originally faced the Noble Sanctuary in Jerusalem. The sacred city was always a focus of intense Islamic devotion and pilgrimage.

Jund Filastin viloyatining hokimlari xalifa tomonidan tayinlanardi. Ular viloyatdagi qo'shin qo'mondonlari, musulmon ruhoniylari, diniy amaldorlar, soliq yig'uvchilar, politsiya va fuqarolik ma'murlari ustidan nazorat qilardi. Biroq Umaviy hukmdorlar, ayniqsa Marvoniy xalifalar, Falastinga shaxsan alohida e'tibor berdilar. Umaviy xalifalar, xuddi Vizantiya nasroniy hukmdorlari kabi, "dunyoviy" (siyosiy, dunyoviy) va "muqaddas" sohalarni, shuningdek, Falastinning siyosiy (dunyoviy/ma'muriy/harbiy) va muqaddas poytaxtlarini aniq ajratib turardilar. Vizantiya nasroniylari uchun, 325 yilda Nikeya kengashida rasmiylashtirilgan bu ajratish Qaysariya-Falastin arxiepiskopligi bilan Ailiya Kapitolina arxiyepiskopligi o'rtasida ancha murakkab va chalkash cherkov tuzilmasini vujudga keltirdi. Umaviy hukmdorlar uchun esa Jund Filastinning siyosiy/dunyoviy/ma'muriy va muqaddas poytaxtlari o'rtasidagi farq soddaroq va aniqroq edi. Shuningdek, X asrdan keyingi arab geograflarining keyingi ma'lumotlari ma'muriy-dunyoviy va diniy poytaxt ("ikki poytaxt") tushunchasini ma'lum darajada qo'llab-quvvatlaydi.

The governors of the province of Jund Filastin were appointed by the Caliph. They were in charge of the army commanders, Muslim clergy, religious officials, tax collectors, police and civil administrators in the province. But the Umayyad rulers, especially the Marwani Caliphs, took a personal interest in Palestine. The Umayyad Caliphs, like the Byzantine Christian rulers, made a clear distinction between the ‘secular’ (political, worldly) and ‘sacred’ spheres and between the political (secular/ administrative/military) and sacred capitals of Palestine. For the Byzantine Christians that distinction, formalised at the Nicaea Council in 325, produced a rather complicated and confused ecclesiastical arrangement between the Archiepiscopal See of Caesarea-Palaestina and the Archbishopric of Aelia Capitolina. However, for the Umayyad rulers the distinction between political/secular/administrative and sacred capitals of Jund Filastin was simpler and more straightforward. Also, subsequent accounts by Arab geographers from the 10th century lends some weight to the secular-administrative versus religious capital (‘double capitals’)

Bu asarda Falastin bo'yicha taklif etilgan tushuncha.

concept in Palestine suggested in this work.

Aelia Capitolina Quddus shahrining rasmiy nomi bo‘lib qoldi, 638 yilda arablar shaharni zabt etib, uning birinchi qismini Iliya nomi bilan saqlab qolguncha.

Aelia Capitolina remained the official name of Jerusalem until 638 AD when the Arabs conquered the city and kept the first part of it as Iliya.

Iliya (keyinchalik Bayt al-Maqdis va al-Quds) Umayyad davlatining va Falastinning muqaddas, diniy poytaxti edi. Umaviy xalifalar Quddusni sevib, uni ulug‘lar edilar. Umaviy sulolasining asoschisi Muoviya (miloddan avvalgi 602–680 yillar) Quddusda o‘zini xalifa deb e’lon qildirgani rivoyat qilinadi (The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1965, II jild: 911). Umaviylar Quddusni va Falastindagi boshqa shaharlarni kengaytirish hamda obod qilishga katta kuch va mablag‘ sarflaganlar.

Iliya (later Bayt al-Maqdis and al-Quds) was the sacred/religious capital of the Umayyad state and of Palestine. The Umayyad Caliphs loved and honoured Jerusalem, and Mu’awiyah (602–680 AD), founder of the Umayyad dynasty, was reported to have had himself proclaimed Caliph in Jerusalem (The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1965, Vol. II: 911). The Umayyads devoted a great deal of effort and resources to its expansion and the prosperity of Jerusalem and other Palestinian cities.

Qiziqarli tomoni shundaki, Marvoniy Umaviy xalifalar poytaxtni dunyoviy poytaxt Damashqdan muqaddas Quddus shahriga ko'chirishni o'ylab ko'rishgan. Strategik sabablarga ko'ra bu ko'chish amalga oshmagan bo'lsa-da, tayyorgarlik sifatida ular al-Aqso masjidi yonida katta "saroylar" ramziy ma'noda qurdilar. 1970-yillarda Quddusdagi Ibroniy universiteti arxeologi Benyamin Mazar tomonidan olib borilgan qazishmalarda al-Haram al-Sharif (Olijanob qadamjo) ning janubi va janubi-g'arbida oltita ulkan binoning qoldiqlari topildi; bu binolar davrni tasvirlagan hech bir arab yozma manbasida tilga olinmagan. Bu binolar "saroylar" deb nomlandi, chunki ular, ehtimol, davlat majmuasining va Quddusdagi Umaviy hukumatning ma'muriy markazining bir qismi bo'lgan.

Interestingly, the Umayyad Marwanid Caliphs considered relocating their capital from the secular capital Damascus to the holy city of Jerusalem. Although the move was abandoned for strategic reasons, in preparation they symbolically built their large ‘palaces’ adjacent to the al-Aqsa Mosque. In excavations carried out by Hebrew University archaeologist Benyamin Mazar in the 1970s, south and south-west of the al-Haram al-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary) the remains of six massive buildings were uncovered; these buildings were not mentioned in any of the Arabic written sources describing the period. The buildings were labelled ‘palaces’ as they were probably part of the government complex and the administrative centre of the Umayyad government in Jerusalem.

Ushbu hukumat majmuasiga o‘xshash yoki unga qiyoslanadigan hech narsa Umaviylar davridagi Quddusda, Jund Filastinning dunyoviy poytaxti al-Ramlada topilmagan. Marvoniy xalifalar ham Quddusning markaziy o‘rnini tiklab, uni yanada yuksaltirdilar. Agar al-Ramla Musulmon Falastinning ma’muriy markazi bo‘lgan bo‘lsa, Quddus Musulmon Falastinning, shuningdek, Umaviylar imperiyasining qolgan qismining diniy markaziga aylandi. Endi shu paytgacha kelishda davom etayotgan xristian ziyoratchilarga qo‘shilib, Mag‘ribdan, Erondan va hatto Markaziy Osiyodan minglab musulmon ziyoratchilarning karvonlari ham Quddusga kela boshladi.

Nothing similar or comparable to this government complex in Umayyad Jerusalem was found in the secular capital of Jund Filastin, al-Ramla. The Marwanid Caliphs also renewed and enhanced the centrality of Jerusalem in the Muslim empire. If al-Ramla became the administrative head of Muslim Palestine, Jerusalem became the religious heart of Muslim Palestine, but also of the rest of the Umayyad Empire. Now, added to the Christian pilgrims who continued to arrive, were the convoys of Muslim pilgrims who came to Jerusalem in their thousands from the Maghreb, Iran and even Central Asia.

Eng katta va eng ta'sirli saroy, Iliyadagi (Bayt al-Maqdis) ulug' dunyoviy Umaviy me'morchiligining markazida, al-Haram yaqinida, janubi-g'arbiy burchagi yaqinida joylashgan edi va Umaviy xalifalarning muqaddas shaharga muntazam tashrif buyurib turadigan qarorgohi bo'lgan. Saroy, ko'rinishidan, al-Valid ibn Abd al-Malik hukmronligi davrida (705–715 yillarda hukmronlik qilgan) qurilgan va Falastin (Ariha yaqinidagi va Tiberiya yaqinidagi) hamda Suriyadagi boshqa mustahkamlangan Umaviy saroylariga o'xshaydi. Saroy 96 x 84 metr o'lchamda bo'lib, katta, ishlangan toshlardan qurilgan 3 metrli himoya devori bilan o'ralgan edi. Saroyga sharqqa va g'arbga qaragan ikki asosiy darvoza orqali kirilgan. Binoning markazidagi keng, toshli yo'lakli hovli ustunlar qatori bilan o'ralgan bo'lib, bu ustunlar portiklarning tomini ko'targan. Ustunlarning ko'pi Falastindagi Vizantiya cherkovlari va binolaridan olib kelingan bo'lib, ularda o'yib ishlangan xochlar izlari bu haqda dalolat beradi.

The largest and most impressive palace at the centre of the magnificent secular Umayyad architecture in Ilya (Bayt al-Maqdis) was near the southwest corner of the al-Haram and was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphs who visited the holy city on a regular basis. The palace was apparently constructed during the reign of the al-Walid ibn ‘Abd al-Malik (who ruled from 705 to 715) and is similar to other fortified Umayyad palaces in Palestine (near Jericho and near Tiberias) and Syria. The palace measured 96 by 84 metres and was surrounded by a 3-metre protective wall, constructed of large, trimmed stones. Two main gates, one facing east and one facing west, gave access to the palace. A broad, stone-paved courtyard in the centre of the building was surrounded by rows of columns supporting the roofing of the porticoes. Many of the columns came from Byzantine churches and buildings in Palestine, as evidenced by traces of engraved crosses on them.

Markaziy hovli atrofidagi xonalar kichik toshli plitalar va mozaika bilan yotqizilgan edi. Qalin devorlarni geometrik naqshlar va gul motivlari bilan bezatilgan suvoq qoplagan edi. Saroy tomidan al-Haram al-Sharif (Oliy Haram majmuasi)ga ko'prik qurilgan bo'lib, u al-Aqso masjidiga to'g'ridan-to'g'ri kirish imkonini berardi. Musulmon binolarining bu ulug'vor majmuasi 749-yildagi zilzila natijasida vayron bo'lgan; buning dalili – qulagan ustunlar va yiqilgan devorlardir.2

The rooms around the central courtyard were paved with small stone slabs and mosaic. Plaster, decorated with geometric designs and floral motifs, covered the thick walls. A bridge was built from the roof of the palace to the al-Haram al-Sharif (Noble Sanctuary compound), providing direct access to the al-Aqsa Mosque. The magnificent complex of Muslim buildings was destroyed by the earthquake of 749; evidence of this is the fallen columns and collapsed walls.2

Umaviylar Quddusda ulkan qurilish dasturlarini amalga oshirdilar, ularning markazida Qubbatu-s-Sakhra (691 yilda tugallangan) turardi

The Umayyad undertook monumental building programmes in Jerusalem, the centre of which were the Dome of the Rock (completed in 691

AD) va Al-Aqsa masjidi (705 AD da tugallangan), ikkalasi ham hanuzgacha turibdi va ikkalasi ham Falastinning eng kuchli diniy va madaniy ramzlari bo‘lib qolmoqda. Al-Aqsa masjidining o‘zi Haram ash-Sharif majmuasi ichida avval qurilgan islomiy masjid asosida va muhim islomiy rivoyat – Isro va Me’roj hodisasiga tayanib barpo etilgan. Islom ta’limotiga ko‘ra, bu rivoyat Payg‘ambar Muhammad ﷺ ning tungi sayohatini, ya’ni Quddusga qilgan sayohatini o‘z ichiga oladi, u taxminan 621 AD yilda sodir bo‘lgan. Umayyadlarning Quddusda va al-Ramlada amalga oshirgan hashamatli jamoat (dunyoviy va diniy) qurilish dasturlari hamda Quddus yaqinidagi, Ariha va Tiberiya yonidagi ulkan saroylari Falastinning Umayyad davlati va dastlabki islom uchun qay darajada markaziy ahamiyat kasb etganini ko‘rsatadi. Ammo Falastin uchun butunlay yangi metropol shaharning barpo etilishi ham Vizantiya davridan uzilishni va Marvoniy hukmdorlar ostida Falastinning qayta yo‘nalishini ifodalagan. Natijada Filastin viloyati uchun yangi poytaxt – al-Ramla shahri vujudga keldi. Bu ma’muriy markaz Filastin hokimi (705–715 AD) va keyinchalik Umayyad xalifasi (715‒717) bo‘lgan Sulaymon ibn ‘Abd al-Malik tomonidan asos solingan edi. Ammo oxir-oqibat, ayniqsa Umayyadlar davrida, al-Ramlada qurilgan yangi hukumat shahri Quddusdagi binolarning joylashuvi va ulug‘vorligi yoki uning diniy jihatdan boy tarixi bilan raqobatlasha olmadi. Quddus esa – biz yettinchi bobda ko‘rib chiqamiz – XII asrda Salohiddin lotin salibchilaridan qaytarib olgach, musulmonlar ko‘pchilik bo‘lgan Falastinning ma’muriy markaziga aylanadi.

AD) and the al-Aqsa Mosque (completed in 705 AD), both still standing, and both remaining the most potent religious and cultural symbols of Palestine. The al-Aqsa Mosque itself was constructed on the basis of an earlier Islamic mosque built within the Haram al-Sharif compound and with reference to a key Islamic tradition, the Isra and Mi’raj. This tradition, according to Islam, involved Prophet Muhammad’s night-time journey to Jerusalem, which took place around the year 621 AD. The Umayyads’ magnificent public (secular and religious) rebuilding programmes in Jerusalem and al-Ramla and their large palaces in Jerusalem and near Jericho and Tiberias show the extent to which Palestine had become central to the Umayyad state and early Islam. But the founding of a completely new metropolitan city for Palestine also represented a break from the Byzantine past and a reorientation of Palestine under the Marwanid rulers. This resulted in the creation of a new capital city for the province of Filastin, al-Ramla, an administrative capital founded by Suleiman ibn ‘Abd al-Malik, the Governor of Filastin (705–715 AD) and later Umayyad Caliph (715‒717). But in the end, and especially during the Umayyad period, the new city of government built at al-Ramla could never rival the location and splendour of the buildings in Jerusalem, or its religiously rich history – a city which, as we shall see in chapter seven, would, once Salah-al Din had recovered from the Latin Crusaders in the 12th century, become the centre of the administration of Muslim-majority Palestine.

An ko'pchilik qabul qilgan fikrga ko'ra, Ramla nomi arabcha "raml" so'zidan kelib chiqqan bo'lib, "qum" degan ma'noni anglatadi (Palmer 1881: 217). Ammo yangi arab poytaxtiga Sulaymon ibn ‘Abd al-Malik uning qumi sababli emas, balki Umaviylar sulolasining asoschisi, Muoviya ibn Abu Sufyonning qizi bo'lgan, e'tiborli ayol Ramla xotirasiga ko'ra nom bergan bo'lishi ehtimolliroqdir. Ramlaning Umaviylar hukmron elitasi orasidagi obro'si yana shu bilan oshgan ediki, u Islomdagi uchinchi xalifa Usmon ibn Affonning o'g'lidan turmush qurgan edi (Roded 1994: 57). Sulola tarixida muhim o'rin tutgan Umaviy ayol xotirasiga bag'ishlab katta shaharga nom berilishi o'rta asr musulmon tarixchilarining, deyarli faqat erkaklardan iborat bo'lgan va Abboslarga moyil bo'lgan davr tarixchilari tomonidan osongina e'tibordan chetda qolishi mumkin edi.

According to the conventional wisdom, the name Ramla is derived from the Arabic word raml, meaning sand (Palmer 1881: 217). But it is more likely that the new Arab capital was named by Suleiman ibn ‘Abd al-Malik not for its sand but in memory of Ramla, a remarkable woman who was the daughter of Caliph Mu’awiyya ibn Abu Sufyan, the founder of the Umayyad dynasty. Ramla’s reputation among the Umayyad ruling elite was enhanced by the fact that she also married to a son of Uthman, the third Caliph of Islam (Roded 1994: 57). The likelihood of a major city being named in memory of an important Umayyad woman in the history of the ruling dynasty could easily have been overlooked by the post-Umayyad almost exclusively male (Abbasid-leaning) Muslim historians of the Middle Ages.

Shu bilan birga, eng muhimi, Sulaymon ibn ‘Abd al-Malik 715 yilda xalifa bo‘lganidan keyin ham al-Ramlada yashashni davom ettirdi va imperiya poytaxti Damashqqa ko‘chib ketmadi (The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1965, II jild: 911). Shuningdek, unga saroy, masjid, keng suv ta’minoti va saqlash tizimi hamda «Bo‘yoqchilar uyi» qurilishi «mansub» deb hisoblanadi; keyinchalik, bir necha asr davomida al-Ramla ko‘plab sisternalari va rivojlangan yomg‘ir suvini yig‘ish va saqlash tizimiga ega mustahkamlangan shahar sifatida gullab-yashnadi (Lev 2006: 590‒591). Bundan tashqari, Islom davrining boshidan boshlab siyosiy/dunyoviy shahar al-Ramla va muqaddas shahar Quddus alohida Falastin arab viloyatining markazida turdi. Vizantiyaning Palaestina Prima va Palaestina Tertia viloyatlarini birlashtirgan arab viloyati Jund Filastin Falastinning asosiy shaharlarining aksariyatini va Mandat Falastin hududining uch dan ikkidan ortig‘ini o‘z ichiga oldi.

In any event, crucially, Suleiman ibn ‘Abd al-Malik continued to reside in al-Ramla, and did not move to the imperial capital Damascus after he became Caliph in 715 AD (The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1965, Vol. II: 911). He is also ‘credited with the construction of a palace, a mosque, an extensive water supply and storage system and the House of the Dyers’; subsequently, and for several centuries, al-Ramla flourished as a fortified city with many cisterns and a highly developed system of rainwater collection and storage (Lev 2006: 590‒591). Moreover, throughout early Islam the two political/ secular and sacred cities of al-Ramla and Jerusalem were at the heart of a distinct Palestinian Arab province. Combining the Byzantine provinces of Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Tertia, the Arab province of Jund Filastin included most major Palestinian cities and more than two-thirds of the territory of Mandatory Palestine.

Arxeologik topilmalar va joy nomlari tarixiy Falastinning toponimik xotira va umumiy madaniyat bilan bog'liq uzluksizligini ko'rsatadi. Ular shuni ko'rsatadiki, Vizantiya Palaestina davrining yirik falastin shaharlari – Lidda, Skifopol (Beysan), G'azo, Tiberiada, Neapol (Nablus), Yofa, 'Amvas/Emmous, Rafax, Akko, 'Asqalon, Iliya/al-Quds/Quddus, Eleuteropol (Bayt Jibrin) va Qaysariya Maritima (Qaysariya) – bu davrda ham shahar markazlari sifatida faoliyat yuritishda davom etgan. Shuningdek, bir qator yangi shaharlar va qishloqlar barpo etildi, eng e'tiborlisi al-Ramla bo'lib, u bir necha asr davomida Falastinning ma'muriy va savdo markaziga aylandi. U Vizantiyaning dengiz orqali kutilishi mumkin bo'lgan hujumlaridan va Vizantiya bilan arablar o'rtasidagi O'rta er dengizidagi jang maydonidan uzoqda, ichki hududda joylashgan edi. Shu bilan birga, Falastinda yangi arab dengiz bazalari va kemasozlik korxonalari tashkil etildi (Nicolle 1996: 47). Quddus (G'azo, 'Asqalon, Nablus, Qaysariya va Yofa kabi) tuman (qada) va mamlakatning diniy poytaxti edi. Uni Umaviylar yangi monumental arab-islom me'morchiligi bilan kengaytirdilar, shahar butun mamlakatning diniy markazi, shuningdek, yahudiylar va xristianlar uchun muqaddas shahar sifatida gullab-yashnadi. Bundan tashqari, Falastin shaharlarining va Islomiy Quddusning me'moriy shakllari uzluksizlik va moslashuvni, arab-islom hamda Vizantiya uslublarining aralashmasini namoyon etdi.3

Archaeological finds and place names show the continuities of historic Palestine with toponymic memory and shared culture. They indicate that the major Palestinian cities of Byzantine Palaestina – Lydda, Scythopolis (Beisan), Gaza, Tiberias, Neapolis (Nablus), Jaffa, ‘Amwas/Emmuas, Rafah, Acre, ‘Asqalan, Ilya/al-Quds/Jerusalem, Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin) and Caesarea Maritima (Qaysariah) – continued to function as urban centres in this period. a number of new cities and towns were also built, most notably al-Ramla (which became the administrative and commercial centre of Palestine for several centuries), located inland, away from potential Byzantine seaborne attacks and the Mediterranean battleground between Byzantines and Arabs, while new Arab naval bases and shipyards were established in Palestine (Nicolle 1996: 47). Jerusalem (like Gaza, ‘Asqalan, Nablus, Caesarea and Jaffa) was a district (qada) and religious capital of the country It was expanded by the Umayyads with new monumental Arab Islamic architecture and the city flourished as the religious centre of the whole country as well as a holy city for Jews and Christians. Moreover, the architectural forms of urban Palestine and Islamic Jerusalem exhibited continuities and adaption and a mélange of Arab Islamic and Byzantine styles.3

9-asrda yashagan musulmon tarixchisi al-Baloziriyning aytishicha, Jund Filastin viloyatining asosiy shaharlari va qasabalari quyidagilar edi: ar-Ramla, al-Quds, G'azo, ‘Asqalan, Nablus, Yafa (Jaffa), ‘Amvos, Rafah, Sabastiya, Qaysariya, Tabariya, Bayt Jibrin, al-Xalil (Hebron), Lid (Lidda) va Yubna. Yubna 630-yillarda ‘Amr ibn al-‘Os boshchiligidagi arab qo'shini tomonidan zabt etilgan, Jund Filastindagi o'nta shaharning biri edi (Le Strange 1890: 20 dan keltirilgan). VII asrda Jund Filastin viloyatining arab-vizantiya tangalari Yubna, Quddus va Lidda shaharlarida zarb qilingan (Goodwin 2004); bu shaharlar Jund Filastinning dastlabki va vaqtincha poytaxti edi.

According to the 9th century Muslim historian al-Baladuri, the principal cities/towns of the province of Jund Filastin included al-Ramla, al-Quds, Gaza, ‘Asqalan, Nablus, Yafa (Jaffa), ‘Amwas, Rafah, Sabastia, Qaysariah, Tabariyyah, Beit Jibrin, al-Khalil (Hebron), Lid (Lydda) and Yubna,4 the latter being one of ten towns in Jund Filastin conquered by the Arab army commanded by ‘Amr ibn al-‘Aas in the 630s (cited in Le Strange 1890: 20). Back in the 7th century the Arab-Byzantine coinage of the province of Jund Filastin was minted in Yubna, Jerusalem and Lydda (Goodwin 2004), the initial and temporary capital of Jund Filastin.

Strategik-harbiy mulohazalar va xalqaro savdo yo'llari Falastinning tasavvur qilinishida va Vizantiya hamda Islom davrida uning tarixini shakllantirishda muhim omil bo'lgan. Jund Filastin viloyatining yangi poytaxt shahri al-Ramla arablar tomonidan taxminan 705–715 yillarda asos solingan va Falastinning poytaxtiga aylangan. Al-Quds (Quddus) Falastinning va Umaviylar davlatining diniy markazi bo'lgan. Al-Ramla 715 yildan 940 yilgacha Falastinning ma'muriy markazi etib tanlangan, chunki u tarixiy savdo yo'li – Via Maris ("dengiz yo'li" yoki "filistlilar yo'li") bo'ylab, G'azo orqali Misrga boradigan muhim strategik joylashuvga ega edi. Tantura yonida qadimgi Via Maris o'ngga, ichkariga burilib, Marj Ibn 'Omir orqali o'tgan, so'ngra Tabor tog'i yonidan shimolga, Damashqqa tomon yo'nalgan.

Strategic-military considerations and international trade routes were major factors in the conceptualisation of Palestine and in shaping its history under both Byzantium and Islam. The new capital city of the province of Jund Filastin, al-Ramla, was founded by the Arabs c. 705–715 AD and became the capital of Palestine. Al-Quds (Jerusalem) was the religious centre of Palestine and the Umayyad state. Al-Ramla was chosen as the administrative centre of Palestine between 715 AD and 940 AD because of its important strategic location along the historic trade route of the Via Maris (‘way of the sea’ or ‘way of the Philistines’) via Gaza to Egypt.5 At Tantura the old Via Maris veered inland to the right and passed through Marj Ibn ‘Amer and then by Mount Tabor northward towards Damascus.

Musulmonlar hukmronligi davrida bu yo‘l al-Fustat (dastlabki Qohira) bilan bog‘langan, al-Sham (Damashq) shahri esa dengiz porti Yaffo’ni muqaddas shahar al-Quds (Quddus) bilan bog‘laydigan yo‘l bilan kesishgan joyda joylashgan edi.

Under Muslim rule this route connected to al-Fustat (early Cairo), with the city of al-Sham (Damascus) at its intersection with the road connecting the seaport of Jaffa with holy city of al-Quds (Jerusalem).

Ammo, 1187 yilda musulmonlarning Quddusni lotin salibchilaridan qaytarib olishi va Ayyubiylar tomonidan Quddusning birinchi lotin qirolligi tugatilganidan so'ng, Filastinning ma'muriy markazi al-Quddusga ko'chdi. Quddusning lotin qirolligi Birinchi salib yurishidan keyin, 1099 yilda tashkil topgan salibchilar davlati edi. Uchinchi salib yurishidan so'ng, qirollik 1192 yilda Akkoda qayta tiklandi va 1291 yilgacha davom etdi. Umuman olganda, lotin qirolligi Filastinda 1099 yildan 1291 yilgacha, so'nggi qal'asi va poytaxti bo'lgan Akko mamluklar tomonidan vayron qilinguniga qadar, deyarli 200 yil mavjud bo'ldi. Salibchilardan keyingi davrda Ayyubiylar va mamluklar (1260‒1517) al-Quddusning Filastinning ham ma'muriy, ham diniy poytaxti sifatidagi mavqeini mustahkamladilar.

However, after the Muslim recovery of Jerusalem from the Latin Crusaders in 1187 and the elimination by the Ayyubids of the first Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, the administrative capital of Filastin shifted to al-Quds. The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem had been a Crusader state established in 1099 after the First Crusade. Following the Third Crusade, the kingdom was re-established in Acre in 1192 and lasted until 1291. Overall the Latin Kingdom lasted in Palestine nearly 200 years, from 1099 until 1291, when the last stronghold and capital, Acre, was destroyed by the Mamluks. The position of al-Quds as both the administrative and religious capital of Palestine was reinforced by both the Ayyubids and the Mamluks (1260‒1517) in the post-Crusader period.

Ilgari islom davrida va milodiy VIII asr boshidan XI asr oxirigacha bo‘lgan bir necha asr davomida ar-Ramla Filastin viloyatining iqtisodiy va siyosiy markazi, mamlakatdagi eng katta, eng boy va eng qudratli savdo shahri edi. Ar-Ramla shimol–janub va g‘arb–sharq savdo yo‘llarining markazida joylashgan edi. Mamlakat bo‘ylab joylashgan ko‘plab karvonsaroylar (xonlar) orasidagi masofa taxminan 20 dan 30 kilometrgacha bo‘lib, savdogarlar va ziyoratchilarga tunab o‘tish imkonini berar edi. Bu xonlar, shuningdek, Umaviylar tomonidan Falastinga kiritilgan pochta xizmati (barid) faoliyatini ta’minlashga mo‘ljallangan edi (Rosen-Ayalon 1998:

Earlier under Islam, and for several centuries between the early 8th and late 11th centuries, al-Ramla was the economic and political hub of the province of Filastin and the largest, richest and most powerful trading city in the country. Al-Ramla was at the centre of the north‒south and west‒east trade routes and the large number of caravanserais (khans) which dotted the country, with a distance of approximately 20 to 30 kilometres between them, allowed merchants and pilgrims to rest overnight. These khans were also intended to facilitate the postal service (barid) which had been introduced to Palestine by the Umayyads (Rosen-Ayalon 1998:

515) va keyingi musulmon sulolalari davrida yanada rivojlantirilgan. Erta islom davrida Jund Filastin viloyatidagi boshqa tarixiy shaharlar: al-Quds, ‘Asqalan, G‘azza, Lidda, Arsuf (yunoncha: Apollonia),6 Yoffa, Bayt Jibrin, Nablus, Ariho va Qaysariya, Iordan daryosining sharqida esa ‘Ammon edi. Bu davrda Falastinning ijtimoiy, madaniy, iqtisodiy, ma’muriy va geosiyosiy qiyofasida ham uzluksizlik, ham o‘zgarishlarni kuzatish mumkin.

515) and developed further under successive Muslim dynasties. The other historic cities of the province of Jund Filastin in early Islam were al-Quds, ‘Asqalan, Gaza, Lydda, Arsuf (Greek: Apollonia),6 Jaffa, Beit Jibrin, Nablus, Jericho and Qaysariah, with ‘Amman east of the River Jordan. During this period, we can observe both continuities and transformation in the social, cultural, economic, administrative and geo-political identities of Palestine.

O'rta asrlar davomida musulmon ziyoratchilari va sayohat yozuvchilari Filastinning butun musulmon dunyosida mamlakatning poytaxti bo'lgan al-Ramla bilan teng ko'rilganini xabar qilganlar (Khusrau 1888; Ibn Battuta 2005: 57).

Throughout the Middle Ages Muslim pilgrims and travel writers reported that Filastin was equated throughout the Muslim world with the capital city of the country: al-Ramla (Khusrau 1888; Ibn Battuta 2005: 57).

Darhaqiqat, islom davrining ko'p asrlari davomida Falastinning poytaxti bo'lgan al-Ramla shahrining nomi butun mamlakat nomi bilan, ya'ni Filastin (Falastin) bilan sinonimga aylanib qoldi va o'rta asr arab sayyohlari, geograflari va tarixchilari poytaxt shaharni ko'pincha al-Ramla-Filastin deb atashgan, xuddi Vizantiya Falastinining sobiq poytaxti Caesarea Maritima ham butun mamlakat nomi bilan, ya'ni Palaestina bilan sinonimga aylangan va ko'pincha Caesarea-Palaestina deb atalgan. Yana bir bor biz islomning Falastin an'analarini va Falastinning Vizantiya ma'muriy va geosiyosiy an'analarini butunlay almashtirmasdan, balki davom ettirib, amaliy ravishda moslashtirganini ko'ramiz. Vizantiya ma'muriy va geosiyosiy an'analarining bunday moslashuvi va o'zgarishiga Falastin va butun Yaqin Sharq (arab musulmon Yaqin Sharqi ham kiradi) hududidagi mamlakatlar, viloyatlar yoki mintaqalarni poytaxt shaharlar bilan tenglashtirish tendentsiyasi ham ta'sir ko'rsatgan. Masalan:

Indeed, for centuries throughout early Islam the name of the capital city of Palestine, al-Ramla, became synonymous with the name of the country as a whole, Filastin (Palestine), and the capital city was often called by al-Ramla-Filastin by medieval Arab travellers, geographers and historians, in the same way as the former capital city of Byzantine Palestine, Caesarea Maritima, had become synonymous with the name of the country as a whole, Palaestina, and had often been called Caesarea-Palaestina. Once again we see Islam continuing and pragmatically adapting Palestine traditions and the Byzantine administrative and geo-political traditions of Palestine rather than replacing them completely. This adaption and transformation of Byzantine administrative and geo-political traditions was also influenced by the tendency in Palestine and the Near East as a whole (the Arab Muslim Near East included) to equate countries, provinces or regions with capital cities. For instance:

Late Bronze va butun temir davri davomida G'azo va Ashkelon shaharlari hamda ularning atrofidagi hududlar Filistiya nomi bilan bir ma'noli bo'lib qoldi.

• The capital cities of Gaza and Ascalon and their hinterland became synonymous with Philistia in the late Bronze Age and throughout the Iron Age.

• Vizantiyalar davrida Palaestina Prima viloyatining poytaxti bo‘lgan Kesariya Maritima butun Provincia Palaestina nomining sinonimiga aylandi.

• Caesarea Maritima, the capital city of Palaestina Prima under the Byzantines became synonymous with Provincia Palaestina as a whole.

Al-Sham ayni vaqtda musulmon Dimashq viloyatining poytaxti bo‘lgan Dimashq shahri (Damashq) bilan sinonimga aylandi.

• Al-Sham became synonymous with the capital city of the Muslim province of Dimashq (Damascus).

Misr al-Fustat sifatida Misr (Misr) ga aylangan — Musulmonlar hukmronligi ostidagi Misrning birinchi poytaxti bo'lgan al-Fustat Misr al-Fustat va Fustat-Misr (Fustat-Misr) deb ham atalgan, va Misr yoki Masr (Misr) atamasi Masr al-Qadimah, ya'ni qadimgi Qohiraning poytaxt shahri bilan sinonimga aylangan.

• The first capital of Egypt under Muslim rule, al-Fustat was called Misr al-Fustat and Fustat-Misr (Fustat-Egypt) and the term Misr or Masr (Egypt) became synonymous with Masr al-Qadimah, the capital city of old Cairo.

Biz ko'rib chiqadiganimizdek, Frank salibchilari hukmronligidagi Lotin Quddus qiroli (va Lotin Falastini) ning ikki poytaxti, avval Quddus, keyinroq Akka, Provincia Palaestina bilan bog'liq bo'lib qoldi.

• As shall we see, the two capital cities of the Latin King of Jerusalem (and Latin Palaestina) under the Frankish Crusaders, first Jerusalem and later Acre, became associated with Provincia Palaestina.

Ko‘rib turganimizdek, so‘nggi Usmonli Falastinning poytaxti al-Quds va uning viloyati — Quddus-i Sharif Mutasarrifligi (“Muborak Quddus mutasarrifligi”) — butun Falastin nomi bilan bog‘lana boshladi.

• As shall we see, the capital city of late Ottoman Palestine, al-Quds, and its province: Kudüs-i Şerif Mutasarrıflığı (the ‘Mutasarrifate of Noble Jerusalem’), became associated with Filastin as a whole.

Xalqaro va mintaqaviy savdo har doim tranzit mamlakat bo‘lgan Falastinning farovonligi uchun markaziy ahamiyatga ega edi. O‘sha davrda Quddus tog‘li mintaqada geografik jihatdan ajralgan bo‘lsa-da, Filastin viloyatining dunyoviy poytaxti al-Ramla strategik va savdo jihatidan Islomning ikki buyuk poytaxti – al-Sham (Dimashq) va Misr al-Fustat (Fustat-Misr) tomon yo‘nalgan shoh yo‘l ustida joylashgan edi. Bu esa al-Ramlaning farovonligi va xalqaro obro‘sini sezilarli darajada oshirdi. Shunday qilib, Filastin nafaqat viloyat/mamlakatning rasmiy nomi bo‘lib qolmadi, balki ba’zi o‘rta asr arab tarixchilari uchun bu nom al-Ramla poytaxti bilan sinonimga aylandi. Strategik, geosiyosiy va savdo jihatidan mamlakat markazida joylashib, muqaddas Quddusni Jund Filastinning asosiy O‘rta er dengizi porti Yoffa bilan bog‘lagan al-Ramla uch asrdan ortiq vaqt davomida mamlakatning ma’muriy, harbiy va savdo markazi sifatida gullab-yashnadi (Foster 2016a).

International and regional trade was always central to the prosperity of Palestine, being a transit country. While geographically Jerusalem of the period was isolated in a mountainous region, the fact that the secular capital of the province of Filastin, al-Ramla, was strategically and commercially located on the highway leading to the two great capital cities of Islam, al-Sham (Damascus) and Misr al-Fustat and Fustat-Misr (Fustat- Egypt), greatly enhanced the prosperity and international reputation of al-Ramla. Thus Filastin was not only the official name of the province/ country but, for some medieval Arab historians, the name also became synonymous with the capital city of al-Ramla. Strategically, geo-politically and in trade terms located at the centre of the country and linking the holy city of Jerusalem with Jaffa, the main Mediterranean port of Jund Filastin, al-Ramla flourished as the administrative, military and trading hub of the country for more than three centuries (Foster 2016a).

IX asrning oxirida Filastin viloyati ehtimol eng katta hajmiga yetgan edi. Abbosiylardan ajralib chiqqan va 868 yildan 905 yilgacha Misrdan turib mustaqil sulola sifatida hukmronlik qilgan Tuluniylar uni yana kengaytirdilar. Filastin viloyati amaliy maqsadlarda sharq va janub tomonga, Jund Dimashq hisobiga kengaytirildi va unga zamonaviy Iordaniyaning janubi hamda Saudiya Arabistonining shimoli-g'arbidagi tog'li va juda unumdor hudud Bilad al-Sharat qo'shib olindi (Salibi 1993: 18‒20; le Strange 1890: 28). Aylah (hozirgi 'Aqabah) 630 yilda (hijriy 9 yil) Muhammad ﷺ boshchiligidagi musulmon qo'shinlari tomonidan egallangan Filastindagi birinchi yirik shahar bo'ldi. Bu deyarli ajablanarli emas: yoshligida Muhammad ﷺ amakisi bilan Suriya‒Filastin savdo karvonlariga qo'shilgan va xalqaro savdo hamda mintaqa geografiyasi bo'yicha tajriba orttirgan edi. Keyinroq, voyaga yetganidan so'ng, Payg'ambar ﷺ ishonchli va juda muvaffaqiyatli savdogar sifatida obro' qozondi va Qizil dengiz bilan O'rta yer dengizi o'rtasidagi xalqaro savdoda ishtirok etdi; Payg'ambar ﷺ, shuningdek, Aylah (hozirgi 'Aqabah) va G'azo kabi portlarga yaxshi tanish bo'lgan bo'lishi kerak, ular o'sha paytda Palaestina Salutaris va Palaestina Prima xalqaro savdo tarmoqlarini bog'lab turardi. Darhaqiqat, dastlabki islom davrida butun davomida Aylah Filastindan Osiyo va Xitoyga savdoning asosiy portiga aylandi (Ramadan 2010a). Aylah port shahri janubiy Filastinda iqtisodiy faollik markaziga aylandi va Makkaga boradigan musulmon ziyoratchilar uchun ham muhim to'xtash joyi bo'lib xizmat qildi (Ramadan 2010a; 2010b). Bilad al-Sharat mintaqasiga kelsak, uning asosiy shahri al-Karak bo'lib, bugungi kunda salib yurishchilari qal'asi bilan mashhur, 'Ammondan 140 kilometr janubda joylashgan va qadimgi Shoh yo'lining bir qismida yotadi. Eng katta hududida Jund Filastin O‘rta er dengizi sohilidan Lut dengizi ortidagi hududgacha cho‘zilgan bo‘lib, Bilad al-Sharatni o‘z ichiga olgan, Sinaydagi al-‘Arishdan shimolda Marj Ibn ‘Amer va Baysangacha yetgan. Jalila hududining ko‘p qismi Jund al-Urdun (“Urdun harbiy viloyati”) tarkibiga kirgan. Uning asosan musulmonlar yashaydigan shaharlari orasida G‘azo, Nobulus, Yofo, Lidda, al-Ramla, Qaysariya, ‘Amvos, Yubna, Rafah, Sabastiya (Sebastiya) va Bayt Jibrin bor edi.

In the late 9th century the province of Filastin was probably at its greatest extent. It was expanded further by the Tulunids, who broke away from the Abbasids and ruled from Egypt as an independent dynasty from 868 until 905. The province of Filastin was enlarged for practical purposes eastwards and southwards, at the expense of Jund Dimashq, to include Bilad al-Sharat, the highlands and highly fertile region in modern-day southern Jordan and north-western Saudi Arabia (Salibi 1993: 18‒20; le Strange 1890: 28). Aylah (present-day ‘Aqabah) was the first major town in Palestine to be taken over by Muslim forces under the leadership of Prophet Muhammad in 630 AD (9 AH). This is hardly surprising: in his teens, Prophet Muhammad had joined his uncle on Syrian‒Palestinian trading caravans and had gained experience in international trade and regional geography. Later in adult life, the Prophet acquired the reputation of being a trustworthy and very successful trader, and he was involved in international trade between the Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea; the Prophet must have also been closely familiar with port cities such as Aylah (present-day ‘Aqabah), and Gaza, which, at the time, linked the international trade networks of Palaestina Salutaris and Palaestina Prima. Indeed, throughout early Islam Aylah became the major trading port of Filastin to Asia and China (Ramadan 2010a). The port city of Aylah became a centre of economic activity in southern Filastin and also served as a major stopover for Muslim pilgrims en route to Mecca (Ramadan 2010a; 2010b). As for the Bilad al-Sharat region, its principal city is al-Karak, known today for its Crusader castle, located 140 kilometres to the south of ‘Amman and then a site on the ancient King’s Highway. At its greatest extent, Jund Filastin extended from the Mediterranean coast to the region beyond the Dead Sea, to include Bilad al-Sharat, and from al-‘Arish in Sinai to Marj Ibn ‘Amer and Beisan in the north, with most of Galilee being part of Jund al-Urdun (the ‘military province of Jordan’). Its predominantly Muslim towns included Gaza, Nablus, Jaffa, Lydda, al-Ramla, Qaysariah, ‘Amwas, Yubna, Rafah, Sabastiyah (Sebastia) and Beit Jibrin.

Filastinning siyosiy poytaxti ar-Ramla butun musulmon olamida o'zining ajoyib go'zal Oq masjidi bilan mashhur bo'ldi – uning minorasi hanuzgacha turibdi – hamda tumanning tuprog'ining unumdorligi, meva daraxtlarining mo'lligi va "mazali mevalari" bilan shuhrat qozondi. Filastinning diniy poytaxti Bayt al-Maqdis esa nafaqat diniy ahamiyati, balki tosh binolarining go'zalligi va nafis me'morchiligi uchun ham obod qilindi (al-Maqdisiy 2002: 34‒35). Vizantiyaliklar hukmronligi davrida Qayсария asrlar davomida Palaestinadagi eng katta shahar bo'lgan bo'lsa, Islom hukmronligining uch asrida ar-Ramla mamlakatdagi eng yirik metropolitan shaharga aylandi. Ar-Ramla X asrning oxirida Quddusda tug'ilgan tarixchi va geograf al-Maqdisiy tomonidan butun musulmon mintaqalaridagi eng "yaxshi" shaharlardan biri sifatida ta'riflangan (al-Maqdisiy 2002: 35). U shunday degan:

The political capital of Filastin, al-Ramla, became famous throughout the Muslim world for its spectacularly beautiful White Mosque – whose minaret is still standing – and for the fertility of the soil of the district, the abundance of its fruit trees and ‘tasty fruits’, while the religious capital of Palestine, Bayt al-Maqdis, was renovated not only for its religious significance but also for the beauty of its stone buildings and its exquisite architecture (al-Maqdisi 2002: 34‒35). While under the Byzantines Caesarea had for centuries been the largest city in Palaestina, for three centuries under Islam al-Ramla became the largest metropolitan city in the country. Al-Ramla was described in the late 10th century by the Jerusalem-born historian and geographer al-Maqdisi as one of the ‘best’ cities in the whole Muslim regions (al-Maqdisi 2002: 35). He had this to say:

Ar-Ramla Falastin shahrining poytaxti [arabcha: Qasbat Filastin]. U go'zal va chiroyli qurilgan shahar. Uning suvi yengil va mo'l, mevalari serob. U ko'p afzalliklarni o'z ichiga oladi, chunki u fazilatli manzaralar, yoqimli qishloqlar va hashamatli shaharlar o'rtasida, muqaddas joylarga yaqin joylashgan. Unda savdo-sotiq gullab-yashnagan, bozorlari esa a'lo darajada. Islom dunyosida shahardagi masjiddan go'zalroq masjid yo'q... Islomda shahar va uning atrofidagi shaharchalardagi mevalardan mazaliroq meva yo'q... Uning mehmonxonalari yoqimli, hammomlari (jamoat hammomlari) nafis... uylari keng... masjidlari yaxshi, ko'chalari keng... yo'llari ... Bayt al-Maqdis [Quddus] yo'liga... Lidda yo'liga, Yaffa yo'liga, Misr yo'liga, Dajon yo'liga olib boradi... Bozorlarda joylashgan poytaxtdagi (Ar-Ramla) bosh masjid Damashqdagi [Buyuk masjid] masjididan ham go'zal va nafisroqdir. U Al-Abyad [Oq masjid] deb ataladi. Butun Islom dunyosida bu yerdagi (Ar-Ramladagi) mihrobdan kattaroq mihrob topilmaydi, uning minbari esa Bayt al-Maqdisdan keyin ko'rish mumkin bo'lgan eng ajoyib minbardir. Shuningdek, unda Hisham ibn Abdulmalik tomonidan qurilgan go'zal minora bor. (Al-Maqdisiy 2002: 143‒144; shuningdek, Le Strange 1890: 304‒305 da keltirilgan)

Ar-Ramlah is the capital of Palestine [Arabic: Qasbat Filastin]. It is a beautiful and well built city. Its water is light and plentiful, its fruits are abundant. It encompasses manifold advantages ... situated as it is in the midst of virtuous landscape, of pleasant villages and lordly towns and near to holy places. Commerce in it is prosperous and the markers are excellent. There is no finer mosque in Islam than the one in the city ... there are no fruits in Islam tastier than in the city and its surrounding towns ... its hostels are pleasant and its hammams [public baths] are elegant ... its houses are large ... its mosques are good, its streets are wide ... its roads lead ... to Bayt al-Maqdis [Jerusalem] road ... Lydda road, Jaffa road, Egypt road, Dajon toad ... The chief mosque in the capital [Ar-Ramlah], located in the markets, is even more beautiful and graceful than that of [the Great Mosque] of Damascus. It is called Al Abyad [the White Mosque]. In all Islam there is found no bigger mihrab [prayer niche] than the one here [in Ar-Ramlah] and its pulpit is the most splendid to be seen after that of Bayt al-Maqdis; also it possesses a beautiful minaret built by Hisham ibn ‘Abdel-Malik. (Al-Maqdisi 2002: 143‒144; also cited in Le Strange 1890: 304‒305)

Aniq aytish kerakki, al-Maqdisi o‘zining "Qudduslik" kimligi va Falastin merosidan to‘liq xabardor bo‘lgan hamda unga faxrlangan. Qiziq tomoni shundaki, u keng sayohatlari va turli Musulmon mamlakatlarida bajargan turli vazifalarini hisobga olsak, sayohatlari davomida unga berilgan o‘ttiz olti nom va unvonni tasvirlab beradi: "Qudduslik [Maqdisiy], Falastinlik [Filastiniy], Misrlik, Magʻribiy, Xurosoniy ... faqih, sufiy ... sayyoh ... savdogar, imom ... Iroqlik, Bag‘dodiy, Shomlik ... Hanafiy ...

Clearly al-Maqdisi himself was fully aware and indeed proud of his ‘Jerusalemite’ identity and Palestinian heritage. Interestingly, however, in view of his extensive travels throughout the Muslim world and his multiple occupations, he describes the thirty-six names and designations by which he was called throughout his journeys and these included ‘Jerusalemite [Maqdisi], Palestinian [Filastini], Egyptian, Maghribi, Khurasani ... faqih, sufi ... tourist ... trader, imam ... Iraqi, Baghdadi, Shami ... Hanafi ...

ustoz, shayx' (al-Maqdisiy 2002: 41).

teacher, sheikh’ (al-Maqdisi 2002: 41).

Al-Maqdisiyning hisobi bizga 10-asrda yuqori ma'lumotli va keng sayohat qilgan shaxs tomonidan ko'p qatlamli Falastin o'ziga xosligining shakllanishi haqida ham tasavvur beradi. Bu shakllanish ko'p jihatdan al-Maqdisi, Mujir al-Din al-ʿUlaymi, Xayr al-Din al-Ramli va Solih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtoshiy tomonidan 10–17-asrlarda mintaqaviy Falastin o'ziga xosligining shakllantirilishiga o'xshaydi (quyida qarang). Bu o'ziga xoslik al-Maqdisiyning tug'ilib o'sgan shahridan (Quddus/Bayt al-Maqdis) boshlanadi. Bu shahar Filastin ma'muriy viloyatida joylashgan bo'lib, u al-Shom katta mintaqasiga, Islom hududiga kiradi (al-Maqdisi 2002: 41, 143‒144).

Al-Maqdisi’s account also gives us an insight into the construction of a multi-layered Palestinian identity in the 10th century by a highly educated and extensively travelled individual, a construction which in many ways echoes the construction of a regional Palestinian identity by al-Maqdisi, Mujir al-Din al-ʿUlaymi, Khair al-Din al-Ramli and Salih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtashi in the 10th‒17th centuries (see below). The identity begins with al-Maqdisi’s native city (Jerusalem/Bayt al-Mqdis), a city in the administrative region of Filastin, which is in the greater region of al-Sham, in the domain of Islam (al-Maqdisi 2002: 41, 143‒144).