Rim, Vizantiya va o‘rta asr islom Falastini iqtisodiyoti va siyosiy mustaqillik darajasi haqida bilim olishning muhim manbalari numizmatik va pul-kredit dalillaridir. Ilk islom davridagi Jund Filastin (Falastinning harbiy/ma’muriy viloyati) viloyatining VII asrdagi arab-Vizantiya tangalari bo‘yicha numizmatik dalillar (Goodwin 2004)

Numismatic and monetary evidence are important sources of knowledge on the economy and degree of political autonomy of Roman, Byzantine and medieval Islamic Palestine. Numismatic evidence of Arab Byzantine coinage of the province of Jund Filastin (the military/administrative province of Palestine in early Islam) in the 7th century (Goodwin 2004)

Falastin tarixining uzluksizligini, mamlakatda shakllanayotgan uslublar va an'analarning xilma-xilligini, shuningdek Falastin ichida rivojlanayotgan o'ziga xos an'analarning ayrimlarini namoyon etadi.

shows the continuities of Palestine, the variety of styles and traditions evolving in the country, as well as some of the distinct traditions evolving within Palestine.

Imperial rule ѓа mintaqa yoki shaharning o'z pulini chiqarish qobiliyati iqtisodiy farovonlik va imperiya sharoitida kattaroq mintaqaviy va iqtisodiy avtonomiyaning muhim ko'rsatkichlaridan biri edi. Biz allaqachon ko'rganimizdek, Falastindagi pul hodisasining eng dastlabki bosqichi miloddan avvalgi VI asr oxiri va V asr boshlarida boshlangan hamda Filistiyada sodir bo'lgan. Bu bosqich IV asrgacha, ya'ni Falastin ustidan Ahamoniylar (Fors) hukmronligi tugagunga qadar davom etgan. Ushbu davrning katta qismida iqtisodiy jihatdan avtonom bo'lgan Falastin shaharlari — G'azo, Ashkelon va Ashdod o'z kumush tangalarini chiqarish imkoniyatiga ega edi. Kumush tanga chiqarish bilan bog'liq bu pul hodisasi keng tarqalgan holda Filistiya tangalari yoki Filisto-Arabiy tangalar nomi bilan mashhur bo'ldi.

One of the key indicators of economic prosperity and greater regional and economic autonomy under empire was the ability of a particular region or city to issue its own currency. As we have already seen, the earliest phase of the momentary phenomenon in Palestine began in the late 6th and early 5th century BC and took place in Philistia. This phase continued into the 4th century up to the end of the Achaemenid (Persian) rule over Palestine. Throughout much of this period the economically autonomous Palestinian cities of Gaza, Ascalon and Ashdod were able to issue their own silver coins. The monetary phenomenon of silver coinage became widely known as the coinage of Philistia or Philisto-Arabian coins.

Shunga qaramay, miloddan avvalgi 1-asrda Rim imperiyasi Falastindagi ko'plab shaharlarga faqat bronza va mis tangalar zarb qilish huquqini bergan. Obro'li kumush tangalarni zarb qilish esa Rimdan tashqaridagi bir necha muhim shaharlar bilan cheklangan edi.

However, in the 1st century AD the Roman Empire granted many cities in Palestine the right to mint only bronze and copper coins. Minting prestigious silver coins was confined to a few important cities outside of Rome.

Bronza tangalari Falastinning ko'plab shaharlari, jumladan G'azo, Qaysariya, Yoffo (Yoffa), Ashkelon, Ptolemais (Akko), Tiberiya, Sefforis, Neapolis (Nobulus), Antipatris, Diospolis (Lidda), Nikopolis (Immaus), Aelia Capitolina (Quddus) va Eleutheropolis (Bayt Jibrin) tomonidan chiqarilgan. Antoninus Pius (Titus Fulvus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius, 86–161

Bronze coins were issued by many Palestinian cities, including Gaza, Caesarea, Joppa (Jaffa), Ascalon, Ptolemais (Akka), Tiberias, Sepphoris, Neapolis (Nablus), Antipatris, Diospolis (Lydda), Nicopolis (Emmaus), Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem) and Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin). Antoninus Pius (Titus Fulvus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pius, 86–161

Antoninus Pius (Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus, 86–161 M.Ye.), shuningdek Antoninus nomi bilan ham tanilgan, 138 yildan 161 yilgacha Rim imperatori bo'lgan.

AD), also known as Antoninus, was Roman Emperor from 138 to 161 AD.

Uning nomi G'azo, Filistin shahrida zarb etilgan imperator bronza tangalarida uchraydi. Bronza tangalar zarb etish an'anasi bir necha Falastin shaharlarida Vizantiya davrigacha davom etgan.

His name appears on imperial bronze coins struck in Gaza, Philistia. This tradition of bronze coinage struck in several Palestinian cities persisted into the Byzantine era.

Islom Falastinda Rim/Vizantiya pul zarb qilish an'anasini Axomaniylar davridagi kumush tangalar bilan amaliy ravishda moslashtirib birlashtirdi va Falastin shaharlarida ham kumush, ham oltin tangalar zarb etilishini rag'batlantirdi. Bundan tashqari, bu arab-vizantiya an'anasining davom etishi hamda Islom ostidagi Falastinda iqtisodiy o'sish va gullab-yashnagan savdoning uzluksizligi islomiy Falastinda qimmatbaho metallarning keng tarqalganligi va oltin tangalarning zarb etilishida yaqqol namoyon bo'ladi.

Islam in Palestine pragmatically adapted and combined the Roman/ Byzantine monetary tradition of coinage with the Achaemenid silver coinage in Palestine and encouraged the minting of both silver and gold coins in Palestinian cities. Furthermore, the continuation of this Arab-Byzantine tradition and the continuity of economic growth and prosperous trade in Palestine under Islam is evident in the widespread presence of precious metals and minting of gold coinage in Islamic Palestine.

Kam uchraydigan va tabiiy ravishda mavjud bo'lgan, katta iqtisodiy qiymatga va investitsiya ahamiyatiga ega elementlar bo'lib, tarixan qimmatbaho metallar zargarlik buyumlarida va pul sifatida tanga zarb qilishda muhim o'rin tutgan. Eng mashhur qimmatbaho metallar arab-islom tangalari bo'lgan; dastlab tangalar Filastinda misdan zarb qilingan, keyinroq esa oltin va kumush tangalar bir qancha Falastin shaharlarida keng zarb qilingan.

Rare and naturally occurring elements of high economic value and investment, historically precious metals were important in fine jewellery and coinage as currency. The best known precious metals were the Arab Islamic coinage and initially coins were minted in Filastin in copper, and later gold and silver coins were widely minted in several Palestinian cities.

Islom tangalarining asosiy unsurlari – materiallar, so‘zlar, naqshlar, belgilar va ramzlar – Falastinda zarb etilgan tangalarda, dastlabki Vizantiya uslubidagi tangalardan to Xalifa ‘Abdulmalik ibn Marvon tomonidan milodiy taxminan 696-yilda kiritilgan islohotdan keyingi pul birliklarigacha, shuningdek, milodiy VIII–XI asrlarda Abbosiylar, Tuluniylar, Ixshidiylar va Fotimiylar davrida ishlatilgan tangalargacha sezilarli darajada o‘zgargan (Shamma 1969, 1980). Umaviylar musulmon xalifaligini qo‘lga kiritib, milodiy 661-yilda Damashqni o‘z poytaxtiga aylantirgach, ularning keng islom imperiyasining iqtisodiy va moliyaviy barqarorligi ularning eng muhim vazifalaridan biri bo‘ldi. Shu sababli, dastlab nisbatan sof oltinning Rim og‘irlik birligi bo‘lgan Vizantiya uslubidagi solidus Umaviylar oltin dinoriga ta’sir ko‘rsatdi; oltin tanganing arabcha nomi esa Rim tangasi bo‘lgan denariusdan kelib chiqqan. Arab oltin dinori dastlab islohotchi xalifa ‘Abdulmalik ibn Marvon tomonidan milodiy taxminan 696-yilda chiqarilgan bo‘lib, uning tasviri Vizantiya imperatorining tasvirini almashtirgan edi. Biroq keyinchalik xalifaning tasviri islom pulidan olib tashlandi. Vizantiya imperiyasining rasmiy tili yunon tili edi va Vizantiya uslubidagi tangalar ta’sirida arab oltin dinorining sofligi qiratda (karat) o‘lchangan, bu so‘z yunoncha κεράτιον so‘zidan kelib chiqqan. Oltin og‘irlik birligi sifatida karat bugungi kungacha saqlanib qolgan.

The key elements of the Islamic coins struck in Palestine – materials, words, designs, signs and symbols – evolved significantly from the initial Byzantine-style coinage used in early Islam to the post-reform currency introduced by Caliph ‘Abdel Malik ibn Marwan around 696 AD into the coins used during the Abbasid, Tulunid, Ikhshidid and Fatimid periods from the 8th to the 11th centuries (Shamma 1969, 1980). After the Umayyads took over the Muslim Caliphate and made Damascus their capital in 661 AD, the economic and financial stability of their vast Islamic empire was one of their top priorities. Consequently, the Byzantine-style solidus – originally a Roman weight unit of a relatively pure gold – influenced the Umayyad gold dinar; the Arabic name of the gold coin derives from denarius, a Roman coin. The Arab gold dinar was first issued by the reforming Caliph ‘Abdel Malik ibn Marwan around 696 AD, with his own image replacing that of the Byzantine Emperor. However, subsequently the image of the Caliph was removed from the Islamic currency. Greek was the official language of the Byzantine Empire and under the influence of Byzantine-style coinage, the fineness of the gold Arab dinar was measured in qirat (carat) which derives from the Greek κεράτιον. The carat as a gold unit of weight still stands today.

Bu beshinchi Umaviy hukmdor tomonidan joriy etilgan islomiy uslubdagi pul islohoti Umaviy hokimiyatni mustahkamlash va o'sha davrning yangi siyosiy-madaniy haqiqatiga mos keladigan standartlashtirilgan arab islomiy tangalarini ta'minlash uchun mo'ljallangan edi (Ramadan 2010b). Arab yozuvining eng qadimgi kaligrafik shakli bo'lgan Kufiy xatidan foydalangan holda, "Allohdan boshqa iloh yo'q" degan so'zlar va keyinroq "Muhammad Allohning elchisidir" degan so'zlar bilan birga, Falastinda zarb etilgan oltin, kumush va mis tangalarga arabcha "Filastin" nomi qo'shildi.

The Islamic-style currency reform introduced by this fifth Umayyad ruler was designed to reinforce Umayyad power and provide a standardised Arab Islamic coinage that reflected the new politico-cultural reality of the time (Ramadan 2010b). Using the oldest calligraphic form of the Arabic script, the Kufi script, in addition to ‘there is no god but God’ and later ‘Muhammad is the messenger of God’, gold, silver and copper coins struck in Palestine added the Arabic name Filastin.

Палестинанинг ранний ислом даврида иқтисодий ва пул жиҳатидан равнақи, шунингдек Жунд Филастин вилоятида, айниқса маъмурий маркази бўлган ар-Раммлада, VIII асрнинг биринчи ярмида маҳаллий зарб қилинган тангаларнинг марказий ўрни Ерихондан топилган ислоҳотдан кейинги ислом тангаларининг икки хазинаси келиб чиқишидан яққол кўриниб турибди. Пул — бу иқтисодий қудрат ҳақида бўлиб, Палестинада маҳаллий зарб қилинган танга ислом давомида Палестина вилоятида амалга оширилган маҳаллий мустақилликнинг кўламини тасаввур қилишга имкон беради. Ерихонның жойлашуви ва Умавийлар davrida Палестина вилоятининг марказий ўрни ҳисобга олинса, ажабланарли эмас, Жунд Филастин ва Жунд Димашқ вилоятлари Ерихон ҳудудидан топилган тангаларнинг «деярли тенг миқдорини таъминлаган» (Walmsley 2000: 338). Билад аш-Шомдаги турли зарбхоналардан келиб чиққан бу тангаларнинг фоизи қуйидагича эди:

The economic and monetary prosperity of Palestine in early Islam and the centrality of the coins minted locally in the province of Jund Filastin, especially in the administrative capital al-Ramla, in the first half of the 8th century is evident from the origins of the two hoards of post-reform Islamic coins excavated at Jericho. Currency is about monetary power and the currency minted locally in Palestine gives us a sense of the extent of the local autonomy exercised in the province of Palestine under Islam. Not surprisingly, in view of the location of Jericho and the centrality of the province of Palestine in the Umayyad period, the provinces of Jund Filastin and Jund Dimashq ‘provided an almost equal number of coins’ excavated from the Jericho site (Walmsley 2000: 338). Originating from a range of mints in Bilad al-Sham, the percentage of these coins were as follows:

• Filastin jundi viloyatida zarb etilgan — 32 foiz; • Dimashq jundi viloyatidan — 35 foiz; • Hims jundida zarb etilgan — 20 foiz; • al-Urdun jundidan — 6 foiz; • al-Jazira viloyatidan — 5 foiz; • Qinnasrin jundidan — 1 foiz; • Misrdan — 1 foiz (Walmsley 2000: 336‒337).

• 32 per cent minted in the province of Jund Filastin; • 35 per cent from the province of Jund Dimashq; • 20 per cent minted in Jund Hims; • 6 per cent from Jund al-Urdun; • 5 per cent from al-Jazirah; • 1 per cent from Jund Qinnasrin; • 1 per cent from Egypt (Walmsley 2000: 336‒337).

Ushbu tangalar quyidagi zarbxonalarda zarb etilgan edi:

These coins were from the following mints:

• yigirma yetti Jund Filastin (yigirma uchtasi poytaxt al-Ramla zarbxonasidan; uchtasi Lidda; biri Iliya [Quddus]); • yigirma to‘qqizta Jund Dimashq (barchasi poytaxt Dimashq zarbxonasidan); • beshta Jund al-Urdin (to‘rttasi Tabariya; biri al-Urdun); • o‘n yettita Jund Hims (barchasi Hims zarbxonasidan)

• twenty-seven Jund Filastin (twenty-three from the mint of the capital al-Ramla; three Lydda; one Iliya [Jerusalem]); • twenty-nine Jund Dimashq (all from the mint of the capital Dimashq); • five Jund al-Urdin (four Tiberias; one al-Urdun); • seventeen Jund Hims (all from Hims mint)

• bitta Jund Qinnasrin (Halab zarbxonasi); • to‘rtta al-Jazirah (ar-Ruha zarbxonasi); • bitta Misr (Iskandariya zarbxonasi) (Walmsley 2000: 338).

• one Jund Qinnasrin (Aleppo mint); • four al-Jazirah (al-Ruha mint); • one Egypt (Alexandria mint) (Walmsley 2000: 338).

Islom davrida, ayniqsa VIII asrning boshlaridan boshlab, Falastin o‘zining alohida arab-islom an’analarini ham rivojlantira boshladi: vazn, o‘lchov va pul zarb qilish sohasida. Muhimi shundaki, Falastinning bir qator shaharlarida "Filastinda zarb qilindi" degan zarb formulasi bilan tangalar chiqarilib, ular mahalliy, mintaqaviy va xalqaro miqyosda muomalada bo‘lgan (Gil, M. 1997: 257).9 Mamlakatning rasmiy nomi Palaestina sifatida Rim tangalarida aks etganligining eng qadimgi numizmatik dalillari Vespasian davriga (miloddan avvalgi 69 yildan 79 yilgacha) oqadi, keyinchalik esa "Suriya Palaestina" nomi Rim imperatori Marcus Aurelius davridan (miloddan avvalgi 161 yildan 180 yilgacha hukmronlik qilgan) uchraydi. Miloddan avvalgi I asrda Rim imperiyasi Falastinning ko‘plab shaharlariga bronza tangalar zarb qilish huquqini ham bergan.

Under Islam, especially from the early 8th century onwards, Palestine also began to develop its own distinct Arab Islamic traditions of weights, measures and coinage; crucially coins were produced in several Palestinian cities with the mint formula ‘struck in Filastin’ (Gil, M. 1997: 257)9 and circulated locally, regionally and internationally. The earliest numismatic evidence for the official designation of the country as Palaestina on Roman coins comes from the period of Vespasian (69 to 79 AD) and subsequently for the name ‘Syria Palaestina’ from the period of Marcus Aurelius, who was Roman Emperor from 161 to 180 AD. In the 1st century AD the Roman Empire also granted many Palestinian cities the right to mint bronze coins.

Ser Jorj Frensis Xill, Britaniya muzeyining direktori va bosh kutubxonachisi (1931–1936), Falastin tangalarining Britaniya muzeyi katalogini tayyorladi, unda o‘n oltita Falastin shahri o‘zlarining tangalarini zarb qilganligi ko‘rsatilgan (Xill 1914).

Sir George Francis Hill, the Director and Principal Librarian of the British Museum (1931–1936), produced the British Museum Catalogue of Palestine coins showing sixteen Palestinian cities minting their own coins (Hill 1914).

Iqtisodiy avtonomiya va Falastin shaharlari tangalari an'anasi milodiy III asrda G'arbiy Rim imperiyasi parchalanib ketganida tugagan, ammo u O'rta asrlarda musulmonlar hukmronligidagi Falastinda qayta tiklanib, kengaytirildi: Iliyo (Bayt al-Maqdis, al-Quds, Quddus), ar-Ramla, Tabariyya (Tiberias), Asqalon va boshqa Falastin shaharlarida kumush va oltin tangalar zarb etilishi ham shu jumlaga kiradi. Rimliklar va Vizantiya davrida Falastin shaharlarining mustaqil ravishda chiqargan bronza tangalari, Islom davrida esa kumush va oltin tangalari Falastinda mintaqaviy avtonomiyaning sezilarli darajada rivojlanganini va qat'iy imperiya nazoratidan uzoqda, o'ziga xos mahalliy an'analarning shakllanganini ko'rsatadi.

This tradition of economic autonomy and Palestine city-coins came to an end in the 3rd century AD when the (western) Roman Empire disintegrated, but it was renewed and expanded in Muslim-ruled Palestine in the Middle Ages to include the minting of coins in silver and gold in the Palestine cities of Ilya10 (Bayt al-Maqdis, al-Quds, Jerusalem), al-Ramla, Tabariyyah (Tiberias), ‘Asqalan and others. This autonomous bronze coinage of Palestine cities under the Romans and Byzantines and silver and gold under Islam suggests the development of a considerable degree of regional Palestinian autonomy and of distinct local traditions, away from rigid imperial control:

Tangalarning topilmalari shuni ko'rsatadiki, Falastinda quyidagi joylarda tangalar keng miqyosda ishlab chiqarilgan: Quddus, Bet Guvrin [Bayt Jibrin], Ramla, Ashkelon, Amman, G'azo, Lod [Lidda], Yavne [Yubna], Tiberiada, Bet Shean [Baysan], Sipphoris [Safuriya] va Tir. Bu zarbxonalarning ba'zilari Vizantiya davrida ham mavjud bo'lgan, va ko'rinishicha, ular 'Abd al-Malikdan keyingi Damashq xalifalari davrida yana ishga tushirilgan. Tangalardagi yozuvlar Iliyo Filastin [al-Quds Filastin], Asqalon Filastin va shunga o'xshash ko'rinishda bo'lgan. Bet Shean (Baysan) zarbxonasidan yunoncha yozuvli tangalar topilgan, ammo ular asta-sekin arabcha yozuv bilan almashtirilgan ko'rinadi. Bet Sheandan topilgan tangalar orasida yunoncha "Skythopolis" yozuvi arabcha "Baysan" yoki "Baysan" yozuvi bilan birga bo'lgan tangalar ham bor edi (Gil, M. 1997: 110).

The finds of coins indicate that there was an intensive production of coins in Palestine in the following places: Jerusalem, Bet Guvrin [Beit Jibrin], Ramla, Ascalon, ‘Amman, Gaza, Lod [Lydda], Yavne [Yubna], Tiberias, Bet Shean [Beisan], Sipphoris [Saffuriyah] and Tyre. Some of these mints were already in existence during the Byzantine era, and it appears that they were again in use during the days of the Damascene Caliphs after ‘Abdel Malik. The inscriptions on the coins were Ilyā Filastin [al‑Quds Filastin], ‘Asqalān Filastin, and the like. From the mint of Bet Shean (Beisan), coins were found with Greek inscriptions, but appear to have been gradually replaced by Arabic. Among those coins from Bet Shean there were some with the Greek inscription ‘Skythopolis’ together with the Arabic, ‘Baysān’ or ‘Baysan’ (Gil, M. 1997: 110).

Islom davrida Filastin tarixi ko‘pincha umumiy xalifalik xronologiyalari orqali o‘qiladi, mahalliy taraqqiyot va hududiy sharoitlarga kam e’tibor beriladi. Islom hukmronligi ostida Filastin iqtisodiy va savdo sohasida ancha mustaqillikka erishdi. U o‘z tangalarini chiqardi va og‘irlik hamda o‘lchov birliklarining o‘ziga xos savdo an’analarini shakllantirdi. Uning tangalari bir necha Filastin shaharlarida zarb etilgan bo‘lib, ularda "Filastinda" degan yozuv bor edi; xuddi bugungi kunda tovarlarda ishlab chiqarilgan mamlakat ko‘rsatilgani kabi.

The history of Islamic Palestine is often read through overall Caliphate chronologies with little consideration for local developments and regional conditions. Under Islam Filastin developed a substantial measure of economic and commercial autonomy. It produced its own coinage and developed its own distinct commercial traditions of weights and measures. Its coins were minted in several Palestinian cities with the inscription ‘in Palestine’, in the same way as the country of manufacture or production is stated on goods today.

Al-Maqdisiy o‘z asarining butun bir bo‘limini o‘z vataniga xos bu o‘ziga xos an’analar, o‘lchovlar va tangalarga bag‘ishlaydi (Gil, M. 1997: 257). Islomiy tangalar (oltindan dinor va kumushdan dirham) zarb qilish Filastinda Umaviylar davrida boshlangan. Dastlab Abbosiylar tomonidan to‘xtatilgan, ammo Tulunidlar davrida al-Ramlada qayta boshlangan. Tulunidlar Misr, Falastin va Suriyaning katta qismini 868 yildan 905 yilgacha boshqargan birinchi mustaqil musulmon sulolasi edi. Uch o‘n yillikdan keyin Ixshidiylar sulolasi 935 yildan 969 yilgacha Misr va Falastinni boshqardi:

Al-Maqdisi devotes an entire section of his work to these distinct traditions, measures and coins of his native country (Gil, M. 1997: 257). The minting of Islamic coins (dinar in gold and dirham in silver) in Filastin began under the Umayyads. It was initially halted by the Abbasids but was restarted in al-Ramla under the Tulunids, which was the first independent Muslim dynasty to rule Egypt, Palestine and much of Syria from 868 until 905 AD. Three decades later the Ikhshidid dynasty ruled Egypt and Palestine from 935 to 969 AD:

IX asrda Falastinda zarb etilgan tangalarda "bi-filastin" ("Falastinda") yozuvi paydo bo'la boshladi. Bunday tangalarning birinchilari Xumarawayh va uning o'g'li Horun davrida, 890 yildan boshlab zarb etilgan.

[in the 9th century Palestinian] coins began to appear with the inscription bi-filastin [‘ بفلسطين ’, ‘in-Palestine’]. The first of these were produced in the days of Khumarawayh and his son, Harun, from 890

904-yilgacha, va bular og‘irligi g‘ayrioddiy, 3 dona bo‘lgan oltin dinorlar edi.2

until 904, and these were gold dinars with the unusual weight of 3.2

…grammlar. Bu amaliyotlar Abbosiylar Misr va Falastinni qayta egallagan davrda ham davom etdi… Ixshidlar, avvalgidek, Ramlada tanga zarb etishni davom ettirdilar, ammo Tulunlar davrida zarb etilgan Falastin tangalarining past sifatidan farqli o‘laroq, Ixshid Muhammad ibn Tug‘j sifatliroq dinorlar zarb etishni buyurdi…

grams. These practices continued during the period when the Abbasids reconquered Egypt and Palestine ... The Ikhshidids continued to mint coins in Ramla, as previously, but unlike the inferior quality of the Palestinian coins produced under the Tulunids, Muhammad ibn Tughj, the Ikhshid, ordered the minting of dinars of a finer quality ...

Ramla zarbxonasi Fotimiylar davrida ham ishlashda davom etdi ... Tiberiya zarbxonasi ham faol edi ... Salibchilar Falastinning ko‘p qismini zabt etganidan keyin Ashkelon ['Asqalan] zarbxonasi ishga tushirildi. (Gil, M. 1997: 258; qarang: Album 1998)11

The mint in Ramla continued working during Fatimid times as well ... The mint in Tiberias was also active ... After the conquest of most of Palestine by the Crusaders, the mint in Ascalon [‘Asqalan] was activated. (Gil, M. 1997: 258; see also Album 1998)11