Arab geografiya va kartografiyaning shuhrati o‘rta asrlarning oxirigacha davom etdi. 1154-yilda, Lotin salib yurishchilarining Quddus qirolligi gullab-yashnagan davrda, Falastin dunyo xaritasida tilga olindi. Bu xarita arab tilidagi buyuk asar — Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi’khtirāq al-Afaq (tarjimasi: “Ufqlarni kesib o‘tishni istagan kishining zavqi”) kitobida joylashgan edi. Uni andalusiyalik arab geografi va kartografi Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165) yaratgan bo‘lib, u o‘z davrining eng yetakchi geografi hisoblangan. Lotin tilida Tabula Rogeriana (arabcha: Kitab Rujar, “Rojer kitobi”) va Opus Geographicum nomi bilan mashhur bo‘lgan al-Idrisining bu asari geografik ma’lumotlarning durdonasi bo‘lib, unda bilingan dunyoning tavsifi va dunyo xaritasi mavjud edi. Xaritada Falastin arabcha “Filastin” nomi bilan ko‘rsatilgan.

The glories of Arab geography and cartography continued well into the late Middle Ages and in 1154, at the height to the Latin Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, Palestine was mentioned on the world map of the Arabic magnum opus, Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi’khtirāq al-Afaq (translated as The Pleasure of Him who Longs to Cross the Horizons), produced by Andalusian Arab geographer and cartographer Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165), the foremost geographer of his age. Becoming famous in Latin as the Tabula Rogeriana (Arabic: Kitab Rujar, The Book of Roger) and Opus Geographicum, al-Idrisi’s masterpiece of geographical information and a description of the known world included a world map, showing Filastin in Arabic.

Shuni nazarda tutgan holda, al-Idrisiy Quddusdagi salibchilar g‘alabasidan o‘nlab yillar keyin ijod qilgan (u bu g‘alabadan bir yil keyin tug‘ilgan), Falastinga bo‘lgan qiziqish eng yuqori darajaga ko‘tarilgan edi va mamlakatni o‘z ichiga olgan xaritalar hamda adabiyotlarga katta talab bor edi.

Bearing in mind that al-Idrisi was working decades after the Crusaders’ victory in Jerusalem (he was born a year after), interest in Palestine was at an all-time high, and maps and literature including the country were sought after.

Al-Idrisiy Palermoda joylashgan edi. Bu shahar o'sib borayotgan O'rta er dengizi davlatining poytaxti hamda nasroniy va arab musulmon madaniy hamjamiyatining (convivencia) markazi edi. U o'n besh yil davomida Normand hukmdori Roger II saroyida xaritaning sharhlari va rasmlari ustida ishladi. Roger II XII asrning birinchi yarmida Sitsiliya qirolligiga asos solgan, aralash madaniy merosga ega hukmdor bo'lib, bu asarni taxminan 1138 yilda buyurtma qilgan (Houben 2002:

Al-Idrisi had settled in Palermo, then the capital of a rising Mediterranean power and a centre of Christian and Arab Muslim cultural convivencia, and had worked on the commentaries and illustrations of the map for fifteen years at the court of the Norman King Roger II, the founder of the Kingdom of Sicily in the first half of the 12th century, with a mixed cultural heritage, who commissioned the work around 1138 (Houben 2002:

102‒104; Maqbul 1992). Al-Idrisiy Yevropa, Shimoliy Afrika va G‘arbiy Osiyo bo‘ylab keng sayohat qildi va musulmon sayyohlari, dengizchilari hamda savdogarlaridan ma’lumotlar to‘pladi. Ptolemeyning Dunyo xaritasi (yuqorida muhokama qilingan) ta’siri ostida yaratilgan al-Idrisiyning Dunyo xaritasi ancha mukammal edi va keyingi uch asr davomida geograflar uning xaritasini eng aniq deb bilib, unga hech qanday o‘zgartirish kiritmasdan ko‘chirib olishdi (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992; Edson 2007: 42‒43).

102‒104; Maqbul 1992). Al-Idrisi travelled extensively in Europe, North Africa and West Asia and gathered information from Muslim travellers, sailors and merchants. Inspired by Ptolemy’s Map of the World (discussed above), al-Idrisi’s Map of the World was far more advanced and for the next three centuries geographers treated his map as the most accurate and copied it without alteration (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992; Edson 2007: 42‒43).

1592-yilda Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi-Ikhtiraq al-Afaq asarining qisqartirilgan arabcha nashri Rimda "De Geographia Universali" nomi bilan chop etildi (Maqbul 1992; al-Idrisi 1592). Rimdagi ilmiy "Medici" nashriyoti tomonidan bosilgan bu kitob arab tilida chop etilgan dastlabki kitoblardan biri bo'ldi. (Hopkins and Levtzion 2000:

An abridged Arabic version of Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi-Ikhtiraq al-Afaq was published in Rome in 1592 with title: De Geographia Universali (Maqbul 1992; al-Idrisi 1592). Printed by Rome’s academic Medic Press, this was one of the first Arabic books to be printed. (Hopkins and Levtzion 2000:

104–131). Arab tilidagi eng to'liq qo'lyozma, unda dunyo xaritasi va barcha yetmish bo'limli xaritalar mavjud, Istanbulda saqlanadi (Pinto 2006: 140).

104–131). The most complete Arabic manuscript, which includes the world map and all seventy sectional maps, is kept in Istanbul (Pinto 2006: 140).

Bir yarim asr o'tib Idrisiy dunyo xaritasi tuzilgandan so'ng, Falastin yana bir dunyo xaritasida, bu safar Venetsiyalik savdogar Marino Sanudo (taxminan 1270–1343) tomonidan topildi. U Falastinga bir necha marta sayohat qilgan va sayohatlari asosida xaritalar chizgan. Sanudo, shuningdek, ijtimoiy arbob va geograf bo'lib, 1291 yilda Lotin qirolligining so'nggi poytaxti bo'lgan Akr qulagandan keyin Lotin salib yurishlarini qayta tiklashga umrbod urinishlari bilan mashhur bo'lgan. Venetsiyaliklar uchun pul topish, dengiz savdosi va Muqaddas yer uchun salib yurishi bir-biri bilan chambarchas bog'liq edi. Akrning katta boyligi (va Galiley hamda Livan sohillarining ko'p qismi) yo'qotilishi bilan venetsiyaliklar va ularning Yevropadagi ittifoqchilari foydali savdo yo'llari, mahalliy portlar, katta moddiy boyliklar, turar joylar, cherkovlar, monastirlar va Akrdagi tampliyerlar, gospitalierlar hamda Tevton ritsarlari kabi mashhur diniy-harbiy ordenlarni yo'qotdilar. 1307 yilga kelib Sanudo "Conditiones Terrae Sanctae" kitobini yozdi, bu aslida salib yurishi rejalari va Yevropaning Falastinni qayta egallashi uchun strategik qo'llanma edi. Sanudoning kitobiga Akr xaritasi kiritilgan (Edson 2004: 133). Shuningdek, 14-asr boshidagi Sanudoning aksariyat qo'lyozmalarida dunyo xaritasi uchraydi.

A century and a half after Idrisi’s world map was produced, Palestine was found on another world map, this time by Marino Sanudo (c. 1270– 1343) a Venetian merchant who travelled to Palestine a number of times and drew maps based on his travels. Sanudo was also a public figure and geographer who became widely known for his lifelong attempts to revive the Latin Crusades following the fall of Acre, the last capital of the Latin Kingdom, in 1291. For the Venetians, money-making, maritime trade and crusading for the Holy Land went hand in hand. Suddenly, with the loss of the considerable wealth of Acre (and much of the Galilean and Lebanese coasts), the Venetians, and their European allies, had lost lucrative trade, local harbours, considerable material assets, residential quarters, churches, monasteries and the famous religio-military Orders such as the Templars, Hospitallers and Teutonic Knights in Acre. By 1307 Sanudo had written a book, Conditiones Terrae Sanctae, effectively a strategic manual for crusading schemes and for European reconquest of Palestine. A map of Acre was included in Sanudo’s book (Edson 2004: 133). Also, a world map appeared in most of Sanudo’s manuscripts of the early 14th century.

Tarixchi Evelin Edson yozadi:

Historian Evelyn Edson writes:

Sanudo taklif qilgan yurish asosiy harakat maydonini ko‘rsatadigan Sharqiy O‘rta er dengizi xaritasi dengiz xaritasi va ichki hudud xaritasining birikmasidir … Kichik Osiyoning janubiy qirg‘og‘i, Falastin va Misr sohillari hamda Kipr oroli bo‘ylab bir qator port nomlari joylashgan.

The map of the Eastern Mediterranean … which shows the main theatre of operations for Sanudo’s proposed campaign, is a combination of a marine chart and a map of the interior … Lined up along the southern coast of Asia Minor, and the shores of Palestine and Egypt and the island of Cyprus, is a series of names of ports.

Falastin qirg'oqlarida bu xaritalarda masofalarni millarda ko'rsatuvchi belgilar ham bor. Ichki hududlarda esa, ancha noaniq ko'rsatilgan, Dajla va Furot daryolari hamda Mesopotamiya, Fors va Kaldeya mamlakatlari kabi yirikroq obyektlar joylashgan. (Edson 2004: 139)

On the coast of Palestine these are accompanied by indications of distances in miles. In the interior, much more vaguely indicated, are larger features such as the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the countries of Mesopotamia, Persia and Chaldea. (Edson 2004: 139)

Deyarli uch asr davomida al-Idrisiyning dunyo xaritasi arab va yevropalik geograflar, kartograflar va tarixchilar tomonidan eng aniq deb hisoblanib, ular uni hech qanday o‘zgartirishsiz ko‘chirib olishgan (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992:

For nearly three centuries al-Idrisi’s world map was treated by Arab and European geographers, cartographers and historians as the most accurate and they copied it without alteration (Scott 1904: 461‒462; Maqbul 1992:

156‒174). XV asrning o‘rtalarida Fra Mauroning (1464 yilda vafot etgan) xaritasi — Venetsiya Respublikasida yashagan, lekin Portugaliya qirollari uchun ham ishlagan italiyalik kartograf va rohib — XII asrdagi al-Idrisi xaritasining o‘rnini egalladi. Yoshligida Mauro savdogar va askar sifatida ko‘p sayohat qilgan va Yaqin Sharq mintaqalari bilan yaqindan tanishgan.

156‒174). In the mid-15th century the mappa mundi of Fra Mauro (died 1464), an Italian cartographer and monk who lived in the Republic of Venice but also worked for the Portuguese kings, came to replace al-Idrisi’s map from the 12th century. In his youth, Mauro had travelled extensively as a merchant and a soldier and became familiar with the Near East regions.

1450-yilda Mauro dunyoning xaritasini yakunladi, u o‘sha davrgacha eng batafsil va eng aniq dunyo xaritasiga aylandi. Mauroning manbalari orasida klassik mualliflar va Ptolemeyning "Geografiya" asari, shuningdek arab kartograflari hamda XII asrdagi al-Idrisiy xaritalari ham bor.

In 1450 Mauro completed a world map, which became the most detailed and accurate map of the world up to that time. Among Mauro’s sources we find classical authors and Ptolemy’s Geography as well as Arab cartographers and the 12th century maps of al-Idrisi.

Mauro’ning dunyo xaritasida Palaestina diniy-siyosiy va amaliy maqsadlarda eslatib o‘tilgan. Agar al-Idrisiy xaritasi XII asrda Sitsiliya qiroli Rojer II tomonidan buyurtma qilingan bo‘lib, O‘rta er dengizidagi savdo bilan shug‘ullanadigan nasroniy qirollikka xizmat qilgan va u Falastin bilan diniy aloqalarga ega bo‘lgan bo‘lsa, Mauro xaritasi Portugaliya qiroli Alfonso V tomonidan o‘sib borayotgan global Portugaliya imperiyasiga xizmat qilish uchun buyurtma qilingan. Biroq, Iso Masihning yurti italiyalik rohib va Terra Sancta’ga boradigan nasroniy ziyoratchilar uchun markaziy ahamiyatga ega edi. Lekin xaritada boshqa barcha joylarni joylashtirish zarurati tufayli Falastin/Terra Sancta’ning hajmi sezilarli darajada kichrayib qolgan va Mauro buning uchun uzr so‘rashga majbur bo‘lgan deb hisoblaydi.

Mauro’s world map mentions Palaestina for religio-political and practical purposes. If al-Idrisi’s map in the 12th century was commissioned by King Roger II of Sicily and in the service of a trading Mediterranean Christian kingdom with religious connections to Palestine, Mauro’s map was commissioned by King Alfonso V of Portugal in the service of the rising global Portuguese Empire. But the ‘land of Jesus’ was central to the Italian monk and to Christian pilgrims to Terra Sancta. However, the size of Palestine/ Terra Sancta is considerably reduced by having to accommodate all the other places on the map and Mauro feels he had to apologise for this:

«Bilimli kishilar Idumeya, Falastin va Galiliyadagi, men ko'rsatmagan narsalarni, masalan Iordan daryosi, Tiberiya dengizi, O'lik dengiz va boshqa joylarni shu yerga joylashtirgan bo'lar edi, chunki joy yetarli emas edi» (Edson 2007: 151).

‘Those who are knowledgeable would put here in Idumea, Palestine and Galilee things which I have not shown, such as the river Jordan, the sea of Tiberias, the Dead Sea and other places, because there was not enough room’ (Edson 2007: 151).

Renessans Yevropasida bosma inqilobi va 15-asr oxiridan boshlab matbaaning tarqalishi g'oyalarning ommaviy tarqalish davrini boshlab berdi, bu esa Muqaddas Yer/Falastinning ommaviy tasvirlanishiga sezilarli ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Yevropa va Italiya Uyg'onish davrida Falastin/Muqaddas Yerning kartografik tasvirlari ham keskin ko'paydi. "Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta" xaritasi taxminan 1480-yilda Florensiyada nashr etilgan va Frantsesko Berlinghieri tomonidan kengaytirilgan Ptolemeyning "Geographia" (Geografiya) asarining nashriga kiritilgan. Italiyalik Uyg'onish olimi va diplomati Berlinghieri 2-asrda yashagan yunon geografi asarlarini talqin qilgan, kengaytirgan va qayta nashr etgan birinchi zamonaviy Yevropalik edi. Ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, "Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta" xaritasi Pietro Vesconte (1310–1330 yillarda faoliyat yuritgan) va Marino Sanudo tomonidan tuzilgan hamda taxminan 1320-yilda Venetsiyada birinchi marta nashr etilgan Falastin xaritasi – Sanudo‒Vesconte xaritasiga asoslangan edi.¹ Vesconte Venetsiyada ishlagan Genuyalik kartograf, geograf va navigatsion xaritalar tuzuvchi edi. U Marino Sanutoning "Liber secretorum fidelium cruces super terrae sanctae recuperatione et Conservatione" asariga dunyo xaritasi, dengiz atlasi, Falastin xaritasi hamda Akra va Quddus rejasini ham tayyorlab bergan. Bu asar savdo yo'llarini muhokama qilgan va yangi Lotin salib yurishini rag'batlantirish, Muqaddas Yerni harbiy yo'l bilan qayta egallash uchun qo'llanma sifatida mo'ljallangan edi (Edson 2004: 139; Bagrow 2010: 69‒70). Yangi salib yurishlari haqidagi g'oyalar asta-sekin so'nsa-da, Sanudo‒Vesconte xaritasi va "Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta" xaritalari Yevropa qudratini namoyon etish va 18-asrgacha Yevropaliklar uchun Falastinning zamonaviy tasviriy obrazlarini taqdim etish vazifasini bajarishga mo'ljallangan edi.

The printing revolution in Renaissance Europe and the spread of the press from the late 15th century onwards introduced an era of mass circulation of ideas with considerable impact on the mass representation of the Holy Land/Palestine. In the European and Italian Renaissance era cartographic representations of Palestine/the Holy Land also increased sharply. The map of ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ was published in Florence around 1480 and was included in Francesco Berlinghieri’s expanded edition of Ptolemy’s Geographia (Geography). Berlinghieri, an Italian Renaissance scholar and diplomat, was the first modern European to interpret, expand upon and republish the works of the 2nd century Greek geographer. Apparently the ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ map was based on the Sanudo‒ Vesconte map of Palestine, a map produced by Pietro Vesconte (who was active between 1310 and 1330) and Marino Sanudo, first published in Venice around 1320.1 Vesconte was a Genoese cartographer, geographer and navigational chart-maker who worked in Venice. He also provided a world map, nautical atlas, a map of Palestine and plan of Acre and Jerusalem for inclusion in Marino Sanuto’s Liber secretorum fidelium cruces super terrae sanctae recuperatione et Conservatione, a work which discusses trade routes and was aimed at encouraging a new Latin crusading campaign, providing a manual for the military reconquest of the Holy Land (Edson 2004: 139; Bagrow 2010: 69‒70). Although gradually ideas of new military crusades began to subside, the Sanudo‒Vesconte map and the maps of ‘Palestina Moderna et Terra Sancta’ were destined to project European power and provide modern representational images of Palestine for the Europeans until the 18th century.

Evropadagi bosma inqilob XVIII asr davomida Evropada "Palestina/Palaestina" ning batafsil xaritalarini o'nlab nashr etish va tarqatish imkonini berdi. 1714 yilda gollandiyalik kartograf, filolog va Bibliya orientalisti Hadrianus Relandus tomonidan yozilgan "Palaestina ex monumentis Veteris illustrata" asari Falastinning geografiyasini xaritalar bilan yoritdi. Usmonli imperiyasida esa kitoblar va xaritalarning bosilishi faqat 1729 yildan boshlandi.

The European printing revolution made it possible for dozens of detailed maps of ‘Palestina/Palaestina’ to be published and circulated in Europe throughout the 18th century. In 1714 Palaestina ex monumentis Veteris illustrata by Dutch cartographer, philologist and biblical Orientalist Hadrianus Relandus illustrated the geography of Palestine with maps. In the Ottoman Empire, the printing of books and maps started only in 1729

va 1803-yilda Istanbulda nashr etilgan Usmonlilarning "Jadid Atlas Tarjimasi" (Yangi atlasning tarjimasi) qisman Yevropa geografik bilimlariga hamda o‘sha davrdagi Yevropa xaritachilik usullariga asoslangan edi. Usmonlilarning o‘sha davrdagi ma'muriy va harbiy islohotlarining "yangi tizimi" doirasida nashr etilgan Yangi atlasda Filastin va bar-Shom (al-Shomning ichki hududi) xaritasi bor edi, unda pastki chap burchakda katta arab yozuvida "Ard Filastin" ("Filastin yeri") atamasi (o‘ziga xos tarzda yozilgan: ارض فلاستان) ko‘rsatilgan edi. Quyida ko‘rib chiqqanimizdek, ushbu yangi Usmonli atlasining nashr etilishi "Jacotin atlasi"dan yigirma uch yil oldin bo‘lgan, u esa "Filastin" va "al-Quds yeri" ( فلسطين أو أرض قدس ) uchun arab yozuvidan foydalangan xaritaga ega edi.

and in 1803 the Ottoman Cedid Atlas Tercümesi (A Translation of a New Atlas), published in Istanbul, was partly based on European geographical knowledge as well as European map-making methods of the day. Published within the framework of the ‘new system’ of the Ottoman administrative and military reforms of the time, the New Atlas included a map of Filastin and bar‑Sham (hinterland of al‑Sham) with the Arabic term Ard Filastin (‘Land of Palestine’; written in a peculiar way: ارض فلاستان ) shown in large Arabic script on the bottom left of the map. As we shall see below, the publication of this new Ottoman atlas preceded the publication of ‘Jacotin Atlas’, which had a map using the Arabic script for ‘Palestine’ and the ‘land of al-Quds’ ( فلسطين أو أرض قدس ) by twenty-three years.

19-asrda Yevropada san'atda romantik salib yurishlari ruhining tiklanishi, diniy ishtiyoq va siyosat, shuningdek, Britaniyaning Falastinga haqiqiy kirib borishi "tinchlik salib yurishi" va Injil orientalizmi shaklida qayta o'ralgan edi.

In the 19th century European romantic Crusader revivalism in art, religious fervour and politics and British actual penetration of Palestine were repackaged in the form of a ‘peace crusade’ and biblical Orientalism.

Ushbu asta-sekin kirib kelish jarayoni, kech Usmonli Falastinida, 1917-yil noyabrida sionistlarni qo‘llab-quvvatlagan Balfour deklaratsiyasi va 1917-yilda Falastinning Britaniya tomonidan amalda harbiy bosib olinishi bilan yakunlandi.

This gradual penetration of late Ottoman Palestine culminated in the pro-Zionist Balfour Declaration of November 1917 and the actual British military occupation of Palestine in 1917.