XII asrda lotin salib yurishchilarining mag‘lubiyati Falastinda musulmonlar hukmronligining qayta o‘rnatilishiga va mamlakatning yana bir bor qayta yo‘nalishiga olib keldi. Bu yetti asr davom etdi va uch alohida davrdan iborat bo‘ldi: Ayyubiylar davri (1187‒1260), Mamluklar davri (1260‒1517) va Usmonlilar davri (1517‒1917). XVIII asrda Zohir al-Umar hukmronligi ostida Falastinning iqtisodiy va siyosiy jihatdan Yevropaga qarab yo‘nalishi, shuningdek, XIX asrning ikkinchi yarmidagi Usmonlilar islohotlari davrida Falastinning zamonaviy davrga kirishiga hissa qo‘shdi.

The defeat of the Latin Crusaders in the 12th century brought about the re-establishment of Muslim rule in Palestine and once again the reorientation of the country. This lasted for seven centuries and consisted of three distinct periods: the Ayyubid (1187‒1260), Mamluk (1260‒1517) and Ottoman (1517‒1917) eras. The economic and political reorientation of Palestine towards Europe under the rule of Dhaher al-ʿUmar in the 18th century, as well as during the Ottoman reforms of the second half of the 19th century, all contributed to bringing Palestine into the modern era.

Salib yurishlaridan keyingi davrda Falastinning geosiyosiy va strategik qayta yo'nalishi — O'rta er dengizi bo'yidagi sohildan uzoqlashishi hamda Ayyubiylar va Mamluklar davrida uning Shom mintaqasi bilan Misr o'rtasidagi strategik joylashuvi — uning tarixi, madaniyati va san'atiga, shuningdek geosiyosiy siyosiy birlik sifatidagi o'ziga xosligiga uzoq muddatli ta'sir ko'rsatdi. O'rta asr musulmon geografiyasida Shom mintaqasi hozirgi Suriya, Filastin (Isroil ham shu jumladan), hozirgi Iordaniya, Livan va Janubiy Turkiya hududlaridan iborat edi. Hozirgi Misr va Suriya davlatlari orasida Falastinning Shom mintaqasi bilan tarixiy aloqalari eng barqaror va zamonaviy falastinliklar ijtimoiy xotirasida eng chuqur ildiz otgan bo'lib qoldi.

The geo-political and strategic reorientation of Palestine in the post-Crusader period away from the Mediterranean coastal region and its strategic location under both the Ayyubids and Mamluks between the al-Sham region and Egypt had a lasting impact on its history, culture and arts as well as identity as a geo-political polity. In medieval Muslim geography, the al-Sham region consisted of the territories of present-day Syria, Filastin (Israel included), modern Jordan, Lebanon and south Turkey. Of the two present-day countries of Egypt and Syria, Palestine’s close historic links with the al-Sham region were the most enduring historically and most rooted in modern Palestinian social memory.

Falastindagi muhim Ayyubiylar davri Salohiddin Ayyubiyning 1187-yilda Hittin jangida franklar ustidan qozongan ajoyib g‘alabasi bilan boshlandi, bu esa Falastin tarixida burilish nuqtasi bo‘ldi. Salohiddin Misrdagi (shia) Fotimiylar davlatining vaziri bo‘lgan, so‘ngra mamlakatda Fotimiylar hukmronligiga barham bergan. Ko‘p o‘tmay Salohiddin salib yurishchilarining Akka qal’asini egalladi, o‘sha yili esa Ayyubiylar qo‘shinlari Nosira, Safuriya, Hayfo, Arsuf, Qayisariya, Sabastiya (Sebastiya), Yoffo, ar-Ramla, G‘azo, Bayt Jibrin, Asqalon va Quddusni olishdi. Quddus Lotin qirolligining aksariyat qismi 1187-yilda yoki undan ko‘p o‘tmay Ayyubiylar qo‘liga o‘tdi.

The important Ayyubid period in Palestine began with Salah al-Din’s spectacular victory over the Frankish at the Battle of Hittin in 1187, a turning point in the history of Palestine. Salah al-Din had been the vizier of the (Shiite) Fatimid state in Egypt before he brought an end to Fatimid rule in the country. Shortly afterwards the Crusader stronghold of Acre was captured by Salah al-Din and in the same year the Ayyubid forces took Nazareth, Saffuriyah, Haifa, Arsuf, Caesarea, Sabastiyah (Sebastia), Jaffa, al-Ramla, Gaza, Beit Jibrin, ‘Asqalan and Jerusalem. Most of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem fell to the Ayyubids in or shortly after 1187.

Biroq, salib yurishchilari 1190-yillarda Falastin qirg'oq chizig'ining bir qismini qayta egallab, katta xavf tug'dirishda davom etdilar va qirg'oqdagi Akka shahridagi frank anklavi 1291-yilgacha saqlanib qoldi.

However, the Crusaders continued to pose a major threat by regaining control of parts of Palestine’s coastline in the 1190s and the Frankish enclave in the coastal city of Acre lasted until 1291.

Qisqa vaqt ichida, o‘z hukmronligining nisbatan qisqa davrida, Ayyubiylar mamlakatda va butun mintaqada ilm-fan (maktab va kollejlar) madaniyatining gullab-yashnashi hamda yuqori darajada o‘ziga xos, ko‘p qirrali va yorqin texnologik taraqqiyot davrini boshlab berdilar (Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 512, 520); Andalusdan Misrgacha, Falastindan Markaziy Osiyogacha bo‘lgan arab va musulmon dunyosida yo‘lga qo‘yilgan fan, muhandislik va tibbiyot, ta’lim va arxitekturadagi taraqqiyotlar keyinchalik lotin salibchilari tomonidan ko‘chirildi va Yevropada tarjima qilindi yoki keyingi Uyg‘onish davridagi yangi taraqqiyotlarga ilhom bo‘ldi. Eng muhim o‘zgarish Quddus ustidan Yevropa mustamlakachilari va frank hukmronligining bartaraf etilishi hamda muqaddas shaharda musulmon hukmronligining tiklanishi bo‘ldi. Shahardagi musulmonlar va yahudiylar lotin salibchilari tomonidan qirg‘in qilingan yoki haydab chiqarilgan, Haram ash-Sharif dagi musulmon muqaddas joylari esa haqorat qilingan yoki nasroniy ibodatxonalari va idoralariga aylantirilgan edi. Ayyubiylar va frank hukmdorlarining xatti-harakatlari o‘rtasidagi farqni zo‘r berib ta’kidlab bo‘lmaydi. Islomiy Quddusning qayta tiklanishi yahudiy va musulmonlarning shaharga qaytishiga imkon berdi hamda nasroniylarning o‘z muqaddas joylariga kirishi va ularda ibodat qilishiga ruxsat berdi. Shuningdek, muhim jihati shundaki, Ayyubiylar davrida al-Quds al-Ramlaning o‘rnini doimiy ravishda egalladi: u Falastinning siyosiy, ma’muriy va madaniy poytaxti hamda butun Ayyubiylar davlatining diniy poytaxtiga aylandi. Ushbu asarning oldingi qismida men Rimliklar, Vizantiyaliklar va musulmon arablar hukmronligi ostidagi Falastinda ma’muriy-dunyoviy va diniy poytaxtlar ("ikki poytaxt") nazariyasi shakllanganini taklif qilgan edim. Bu Rimliklar va Vizantiyaliklar davridagi Kesariya-Falastin va Aeliya Kapitolina misollarida, shuningdek, Islom tarixining dastlabki uch asrida Falastindagi al-Ramla va Iliya-al-Quds misollarida yoritilgan edi.

Within less than a century during their relatively short tenure, the Ayyubids ushered in a dynamic period of great cultural flowering of learning (of schools and colleges) and highly original, multi-faceted and marked technological developments in the country and throughout the region (Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 512, 520); developments in science, engineering and medicine, education and architecture pioneered in the Arab and Muslim world, from the Andalus to Egypt and from Palestine and Central Asia, were later either copied by the Latin Crusaders and translated in Europe or inspired further developments during the later Renaissance. The most crucial development was the removal of the European colonial and Frankish domination of Jerusalem and the restoration of Muslim rule in the holy city. The Muslims and Jews of the city had been slaughtered or driven out by the Latin Crusaders and the Muslim holy places on the Haram al-Sharif had been desecrated or converted into Christian temples and offices. The contrast between the behaviour of the Ayyubid and Frankish rulers can hardly be overstated. The re-establishment of Islamic Jerusalem allowed Jews and Muslims to return to the city and permitted Christian access to and worship at their holy places. Also, crucially, under the Ayyubids al-Quds permanently replaced al-Ramla as the political, administrative and cultural capital of Palestine as well as the religious capital of the whole Ayyubid state. Earlier in this work I suggested the theory of a secular-administrative versus religious capital (‘double capitals’) evolving in Palestine under the Romans, Byzantines and Muslim Arabs. This was illustrated in the cases of Caesarea-Palaestina versus Aelia Capitolina under the Romans and Byzantines and al-Ramla versus Iliya-al-Quds during the first three centuries of Islam in Palestine.

Falastinning ma'muriy va diniy poytaxtlari o'rtasidagi bu bo'linish Ayyubiylar davrida bekor qilindi. Mamluklar, Usmonlilar va inglizlar Ayyubiylar an'anasiga amal qildilar. Quddusning Falastinning eng yirik va poytaxt shahri sifatidagi maqomi keyingi yetti asr davomida saqlanib qoldi.

This separation between administrative and religious capitals of Palestine was discontinued under the Ayyubids. And the Mamluks, Ottomans and British followed the Ayyubid tradition. The status of Jerusalem as the foremost and capital city of Palestine was to last for the next seven centuries.

Ayyubiylar, bundan tashqari, Falastinda va ular hukmronlik qilgan barcha mamlakatlarda ilmiy faoliyat va iqtisodiy farovonlikning yangi davrini boshlab berdilar.

The Ayyubids, furthermore, ushered in a new era of intellectual activity and economic prosperity in Palestine and in all the countries they ruled.

Islom madrasalari (maktablar) Quddusda Islom davridan boshlab mavjud bo‘lgan (Gil, M. 1997). Biroq salib yurishlari davridan keyingi eng dastlabki madrasalar Ayyubiylar tomonidan qurilgan (Galor and Bloedhorn 2013: 216). Ayyubiylar tomonidan qurilgan madrasalar va ko‘rsatilgan homiylik nafaqat Quddusda, balki Falastinning boshqa shaharlarida ham ta’lim, savdo, me’morchilik va san’at faoliyatining jonlanishiga olib keldi (Hillenbrand and Auld 2009). Ayyubiylar va Mamluklar davrida musulmon ziyoratchilari uchun mo‘ljallangan ribotlarning (mehmonxonalar) katta qismi qurilgan (Galor and Bloedhorn 2013: 213). Salib yurishlari davri asosan Falastinning shahar markazlariga ta’sir qilgan; u “ko‘p jihatdan (qishloq) orqa hududlar hayotidagi shunchaki bir epizod edi, xristian hukmronligi tugashi va Ayyubiylar kelishi bilan bu hududlar tezda normal holatiga qaytdi” (Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 514). Bu davr, shuningdek, Ayyubiylarning hukmronligi ostida sunniy musulmon hukmronligini mustahkamlash jarayoni bilan ham ajralib turadi: asosiy shaharlarda, ayniqsa Quddusda ko‘plab madrasalar, sufiy xonaqohlari (zoviyalar), ribotlar, jamoat hammomlari, bozorlar va karvonsaroylar (xonlar) barpo etilgan.

Islamic madrasahs (schools) had existed in Jerusalem since the early Islamic period (Gil, M. 1997). However, the earliest madrasahs in Jerusalem after the Frankish period were built by the Ayyubids (Galor and Bloedhorn 2013: 216). The madrasahs and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led to resurgence in educational, commercial, architectural and artistic activity not only in Jerusalem but in other urban centres of Palestine (Hillenbrand and Auld 2009). A substantial number of ribats (hospices for Muslim pilgrims) were built during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods (Galor and Bloedhorn 2013: 213). The Crusader period had affected mainly the urban centres of Palestine; it was ‘merely an episode in the life of much of the [rural] hinterland which quickly returned to normal conditions with the end of Christian domination’ and the advent of the Ayyubids (Rosen- Ayalon 1998: 514). The period was also marked by an Ayyubid process of reinforcing Sunni Muslim domination under their rule by setting up numerous madrasahs, sufi lodges (zawiyas), ribats, public baths, markets and caravanserais (khans) in the main cities, especially in Jerusalem.

Vaqt o'tishi bilan Quddusdagi barcha muassasa va tijorat mulklarining deyarli chorak qismi islomiy vaqf xayriya mulklariga tegishli bo'lib qoldi va Usmonli davrining hujjatlari shu holatning hatto so'nggi Usmonli davrida ham saqlanib qolganini ko'rsatadi.2 Quddusda va Falastinning boshqa hududlarida saqlanib qolgan yodgorliklar Falastinda Ayyubiylar davrining gullab-yashnagan va farovon bo'lganidan dalolat beradi.

Over time, nearly a quarter of all institutions and commercial properties in Jerusalem belonged to Islamic waqf endowments and Ottoman deed records show this situation was still evident in the late Ottoman period.2 The surviving monuments in Jerusalem and other parts of Palestine bear witness to the dynamism and prosperity of the Ayyubid period in Palestine.

Salibchilar O'rta yer dengizi orqali Falastinning sohil bo'yidagi hududlariga tahdid solishda davom etdilar. Eng muhimi, salibchilarning qamal usullari va blokada usullaridan foydalanish qobiliyati Falastin va Suriyaning eng mustahkam qal'alarini egallashga imkon berdi, bu esa ularning zamondoshlari tomonidan "muvaffaqiyatli va dahshatli qamal jangchilari" sifatida tan olinishiga olib keldi (Rogers 2002: 39). Dengizdan hujumlarning oldini olish va salibchilarning qaytib kelishi hamda qamal vaziyatlari ehtimolini oldindan bartaraf etish uchun ayyubiylar mamlakatni strategik jihatdan sohil mintaqasidan Falastinning ichki hududlariga qayta yo'naltirishga intildilar. Natijada ular shimolda Tirdan janubda G'azogacha bo'lgan bir qator sohil shaharlarining devorlarini (va ularning infratuzilmasining katta qismini) vayron qildilar hamda bu shaharlarning portlariga har qanday mumkin bo'lgan qo'nishni to'sish maqsadida vayronalarni suvga tashladilar.

The Crusaders continued to threaten coastal Palestine via the Mediterranean Sea. Crucially, the Crusaders’ abilities to utilise siege techniques and blockade methods to capture Palestine’s and Syria’s greatest fortifications ‘confirmed the crusaders to contemporaries as successful and terrifying siege warriors’ (Rogers 2002: 39). To prevent attacks from the sea and pre-empt the eventual return of the Crusaders and siege situations, the Ayyubids sought to reorient the country strategically from the coastal region to the hinterland of Palestine and consequently destroyed the walls of a number of coastal cities (and much of their infrastructure) from Tyre in the north to Gaza in the south and dumped the rubble in the water in an effort to block any possible landing in the ports of these cities:

Shubhasiz, maqsad dengizdan har qanday qo'nishning oldini olish edi.

Obviously, the objective was to prevent any landing from the sea.

Shu maqsadda suvga har xil turdagi materiallar tashlandi, bu esa portlarga kirishni to'sib qo'ydi. Sezariya porti bugungi kunga qadar qoldiqlar bilan to'silgan. Ashkelon [sic] bu taqdirga duchor bo'lgan birinchi shahar bo'ldi, uning vayron qilinishi haqidagi buyruqni Salohiddin o'zi bergan edi.

To that end, material of every sort was dumped into the water, obstructing access to the ports. The port of Caesarea is blocked by the debris until today. Asqalon [sic] was the first city to suffer this fate, the order for its destruction being given by Salah al-Din himself.

Uning devorlarining qoldiqlari asl joylaridan unchalik uzoq bo'lmagan joyda izlar bilan qoplangan. Mavjud barcha dalillarga ko'ra Fotimiylar tomonidan qurilgan bu devorlar salibchilarga xizmat qilishda davom etgan, ammo Ayyubiylarning vayron qilish siyosatining qurboniga aylangan. (Mujir al-Din 1973:

The remains of its walls are scarred not far from where they originally stood. These walls, which – according to all existing evidence – were constructed by the Fatimids, had continued to serve the Crusaders but fell victim to the Ayyubid policy of destruction. (Mujir al-Din 1973:

(422; Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 515)

422; Rosen-Ayalon 1998: 515)

Biroq, Falastinning qirg'oq shaharlari Ayyubiylar tomonidan butunlay vayron qilingan, deb da'vo qilish to'liq to'g'ri emas. Aslida, dalillar umumiy vayron qilish siyosati mavjudligi haqidagi bu da'voga zid keladi.

However, it is not entirely true to suggest that Palestine’s coastal cities were completely destroyed by the Ayyubids. In fact, the evidence contradicts this claim about the existence of a wholesale policy of destruction.

Yoqut al-Hamaviy (1179–1229) — arab tarixchisi va geografi, Ayyubiylar hukmronligi davrida, XIII asr boshida yozgan; yuqori ma'lumotli, sobiq qul bo'lgan, Falastin, Misr, Suriya, Fors va Markaziy Osiyoda keng savdo qilib, sayohat qilgan va musulmon dunyosi haqidagi ensiklopedik asarlari bilan mashhur bo'lgan. Uning "Kitob Mu'jam al-Buldon" asari (al-Hamaviy 1861) da Filastin viloyati tasvirlanadi va uning eng yirik shaharlari orasida ‘Asqalon, G‘azo, Arsuf va Qaysariya sanab o‘tiladi; poytaxt esa al-Ramla o‘rnini egallagan Quddus edi. Yoqut yozadi:

Writing in the early 13th century during Ayyubid rule the Arab biographer and geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi (1179–1229) – a highly educated former slave who traded widely and travelled extensively in Palestine, Egypt, Syria, Persia and Central Asia and became renowned for his encyclopaedic writings on the Muslim world, published in Kitab Mu’jam al-Buldan (al-Hamawi 1861) – describes the province of Filastin and lists the coastal cities of ‘Asqalan, Gaza, Arsuf and Caesarea among the premier cities of Filastin, whose capital Jerusalem had replaced al-Ramla. Yaqut writes:

Filastin — Shom viloyatlarining Misr tomon yo‘nalishidagi so‘nggisidir. Uning poytaxti Quddusdir. Asosiy shaharlari: ‘Asqalan, Ar-Ramla, G‘azza, Arsuf, Qaysariya [Qaysariah; Caesarea Maritima], Nablus, Ariha (Jeriko), ‘Ammon, Yofa [Jaffa] va Bayt Jibrin.

Filastin is the last of the provinces of [al-Sham] towards Egypt. Its capital is Jerusalem. Of the principal towns are ‘Askalan, Ar Ramlah, Gazzah, Arsuf, Kaisariyyah [Qaysariah; Caesarea Maritima], Nabulus, Ariha (Jericho), ‘Amman, Yafah [Jaffa] and Beit Jibrin. (Le Strange 2014: 29)

Bundan tashqari, muhim jihati shundaki, salib yurishlaridan oldingi Falastin viloyatiga oid arab geografik atamalarining ko'p qismi salib yurishlari davrida va undan keyin ham arab geograflari tomonidan qo'llanishda davom etdi. Masalan, "Filastin viloyati" atamasi arab geografi Yoqut al-Hamaviy (1179–1229) tomonidan takror-takror ishlatilgan, u Sabastiya (Sebastiya) shahrini Nablus tumanida, poytaxti Quddus bo'lgan Filastin viloyatida joylashgan deb ko'rsatadi (Le Strange 1890: 523; shuningdek qarang: 441).

Also, crucially, much of the pre-Crusader Arab geographical terminology of the province of Palestine continued to be used by Arab geographers during and after the Crusader period. For instance, the term ‘the province of Filastin’ was repeatedly used by Arab geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi (1179–1229), who situates the town of the town of Sabastiyah (Sebastia) in the district of Nablus, in the province of Filastin, whose capital is Jerusalem (Le Strange 1890: 523; also see 441).

Biroq, salib yurishlari va sohil Falastinining umumiy xavfsizlik sharoitsizligi sohil shaharlarining asta-sekin inqirozga yuz tutishiga va Falastinning shahar orqa hududlarining yuksalishiga olib keldi. Bu davrda al-Ramla shahrining ham asta-sekin tanazzulga uchrashi kuzatildi; u uch yarim asrdan ortiq vaqt davomida Filastin viloyatining siyosiy va ma'muriy poytaxti bo'lgan edi. al-Ramla aholisi kamayib ketdi, Jund Filastinning poytaxt shahri esa Fotimiylar davrida, XI asrda ikkita yirik zilzila natijasida vayron bo'ldi (Mujir al-Din 1866: 416; Lev 2006: 592). Ammo Falastinning sohil shaharlari yanada keskinroq pasayishni boshdan kechirdi. Darhaqiqat, Akko va Yofa kabi sohil shaharlari faqat XVIII asrning o'rtalarida tiklana boshladi va iqtisodiy-ijtimoiy jonlanish davrini boshdan kechirdi. Buning aksi o'laroq, ichki hududdagi al-Quds/Quddus shahri XIII–XV asrlarda Mamluklar hukmronligi davrida yana Falastinning eng rivojlangan metropol shahriga aylandi. XVIII asrda mintaqaviy va global savdo, xususan paxta, bug'doy va to'qimachilik mahsulotlari savdosi Akko va Nablusni Falastinning eng yirik va eng farovon shaharlariga, al-Sham mintaqasidagi eng katta shaharlar qatoriga aylantirdi (Doumani 1995; Philipp 2001).

However, the Crusader wars and overall insecurities of coastal Palestine brought about the slow decline of the coastal cities and the rise of Palestine’s urban hinterland. This period was also marked by the slow decline of the city of al-Ramla, which had been the political and administrative capital of the province of Filastin for over three and a half centuries; the population of al-Ramla decreased and the capital city of Jund Filastin was devastated during the Fatimid period by two major earthquakes in the 11th century (Mujir al-Din 1866: 416; Lev 2006: 592). But the coastal cities of Palestine experienced a more dramatic decline. In fact, coastal cities such as Acre and Jaffa began to recover and experience a socio-economic revival only in the middle of the 18th century. By contrast, the inland city of al-Quds/Jerusalem became once again the most developed metropolitan city of Palestine under the Mamluks throughout the 13th‒15th centuries. In the 18th century regional and global trade in cotton, wheat and textiles made Acre and Nablus the biggest and most prosperous cities in Palestine and among the largest cities in the al-Sham region (Doumani 1995; Philipp 2001).