Oʻn sakkizinchi asrning koʻp o‘n yilliklari davomida Dhaher al-ʿUmar boshqargan, Jalilada joylashgan avtonom tuzum – ayniqsa Fransiya va Buyuk Britaniya bilan savdo aloqalari kuchaygan holda – Jalilani Livan chegarasidan G‘azagacha bo‘lgan butun Falastin sohili bilan bog‘ladi. Shuning uchun ham o‘n to‘qqizinchi asr davomida Yevropa sayohatnomalari (“Falastin bo‘ylab sayohatlar”), qo‘llanmalar, diniy risolalar, romanlar, ziyoratchilarning hikoyalari va xaritalar “Falastin” bilan “Suriya”ni aniq ajratib ko‘rsatgani hech kimni ajablantirmaydi. Ular tarixiy Falastin/Muqaddas yerni amalda alohida mamlakat sifatida qarashgan. Bundan tashqari, o‘n to‘qqizinchi asr davomida Yevropa va Rossiya sayohatchilari hamda ziyoratchilari uchun Falastin va Muqaddas yer bir-birining o‘rnini bosadigan so‘zlar edi. Bu sinonimlik Suriyani o‘z ichiga olmas edi, bu esa Falastinni shimoldagi Suriyadan keskin ajratib qo‘yardi. O‘n to‘qqizinchi asrda diniy uyg‘onish, unga qo‘shilgan olovli messianistik millatchilik, “Injilga qaytish” harakatlari va Falastinning “qayta kashf etilishi” Yevropa va Rossiyani to‘lqinlantirdi. Bundan tashqari, o‘n to‘qqizinchi asr Yevropa va Rossiya Orientalizmida “Falastin” va “Muqaddas yer/Terra Sancta/Isoning yurti” bir-birining o‘rnida ishlatilgan. Injil hikoyalariga singib ketgan bu diniy-siyosiy qarash Falastin/Muqaddas yerni Suriya va Livandan keskin ajratib ko‘rsatdi hamda Jalilani (Iso tug‘ilgan joy va Yangi Ahd hikoyalarining ko‘pchiligi sodir bo‘lgan makon) …

For many decades in the 18th century the Galilee-based autonomous regime of Dhaher al-ʿUmar – with its increased trade links with France and Britain in particular – effectively linked the Galilee with the entire Palestinian coast from Lebanon to Gaza. It is not surprising, therefore, that throughout the 19th century the combined effect of European travelogues (‘travels in Palestine’), guide books, religious treatises, novels, pilgrims’ accounts and maps made a clear distinction between ‘Palestine’ and ‘Syria’ and treated historic Palestine/Holy Land for all practical purposes as a separate country. Moreover, throughout the 19th century for European and Russian travellers and pilgrims Palestine and the Holy Land were synonymous and interchangeable. This synonymy did not include Syria, which made Palestine sharply distinct from Syria to the north. In the 19th century religious revivalism, combined with feverish messianic nationalism, ‘back to the Bible’ movements and ‘rediscovery’ of Palestine, swept across Europe and Russia. Moreover, in European and Russian Orientalisms of the 19th century ‘Palestine’ and the ‘Holy Land/Terra Sancta/the land of Jesus’ were interchangeable. This religio-political perception of Palestine, steeped in the stories of the New Testament, made Palestine/the Holy Land seem sharply distinct from Syria and Lebanon and made the Galilee (the birthplace of Jesus and the scene of many of the stories of the New Testament)

Islom bilan an'anaviy ravishda bog'liq bo'lgan vasi al-Sham mintaqasi bilan bo'lgan yaqin aloqalardan ko'ra ham ko'proq, u Quddus, Baytlahm, Al-Xalil (Hebron), Yaffa va G'azo bilan tabiiy va chambarchas bog'liq.

inherently and closely linked with Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Hebron, Jaffa and Gaza, more than its traditionally close links under Islam with the vast al-Sham region.

Falastin tushunchasining keng tarqalishi 1890-yilda nashr etilgan "Bibliotheca geographica Palaestinae" asarida ko'rsatilgan Falastinga oid geografik adabiyotlarning ulkan to'plamida namoyon bo'ldi. Bu asarning muallifi salib yurishlari tarixchisi, nemis olimi Gustav Reinhold Rohrixtdir. Rohrixt 333-yildan 1878-yilgacha Falastinga bag'ishlangan 3515 ta bosma va qo'lyozma asarning ro'yxatini tuzgan. Asarda Falastinga oid xaritalarning xronologik ro'yxati ham berilgan. Rohrixtning Falastin adabiyoti va nashrlarini tahlil qilishi quyidagilarni ko'rsatadi:

The popularisation of the concept of Palestine was illustrated by the mountains of geographical literature on Palestine listed in the 1890 Bibliotheca geographica Palaestinae by Gustav Reinhold Röhricht, a German historian of the Crusades. Röhricht provided a census of 3515 print and manuscript accounts dedicated to Palestine literature between 333 AD and 1878 AD. The work also had a chronological list of maps relating to Palestine. Röhricht’s survey of Palestine literature and publications shows the following:

(a) 333 dan 1300 milodiy yilgacha: 177 ta asar (b) XIV asr: 97 ta

(a) 333 to 1300 AD: 177 works (b) 14th century: 97

(c) 15-asr – bosma mashinasining ixtiro qilinishi bilan: 279

(c) 15th century – with the invention of the printing press–: 279

(d) XVI asr: 333

(d) 16th century: 333

17-asr: 390

(e) 17th century: 390

(f) 18-asr: 318

(f ) 18th century: 318

(g) 19-asr (1878 yilgacha) – qo'lda boshqariladigan Gutenberg uslubidagi bosma mashinalarning bug' kuchida ishlaydigan bosma mashinalar bilan almashtirilishi bilan, bu sanoat miqyosida bosma ishlarni amalga oshirishga imkon berdi –: 1915 yildagi asarlar. (Shalev 2012: 79)

(g) 19th century (until 1878) – with the replacement of the handoperated Gutenberg-style presses by steam-powered presses which allowed printing on an industrial scale –:1915 works. (Shalev 2012: 79)

Biroq, bu diqqatga sazovor tadqiqot har tomonlama emas edi. XVIII va XIX asrlarda Falastin haqidagi g'arb sayohatnomalari minglab kitoblar, maqolalar va boshqa materiallarni o'z ichiga oldi; ular Yevropa, Rossiya va Shimoliy Amerikadan kelgan sayohatchilarning Muqaddas yerga qilgan safarlari haqida hikoya qilardi.

However, this remarkable survey was far from being exhaustive. Western travelogues of Palestine in the 18th and 19th centuries included thousands of books, articles and other materials detailing accounts of the journeys of European, Russian and North American travellers to the Holy Land.

Modern kapitalizm, yangi bosma texnologiyalari va yangi transport vositalari ta'sirida Falastin haqidagi sayohatnomalarning ko'pchiligi mamlakatga oddiy odamlarning tirik tarixlari va umumiy xotiralari yurti sifatida emas, balki G'arb xristianligi uchun yodgorlik sifatida qaragan – ilmiy ratsionalizm va shubha bilan bir tomondan, literalistik evangelist fundamentalizm bilan ikkinchi tomondan o'rtasidagi kuchli kurash ichida yangi o'ziga xoslik izlayotgan xristianlik sifatida. Odatdagidek, 1891 yildagi "The Church Quarterly Review" – Angliya cherkovining jurnali – Röhrichtning kitobini Falastin geografiyasini o'rganuvchilar uchun "zarur" deb atagan. Röhrichtning Falastin adabiyoti sharhi ikki alohida davr haqida eng ko'p ma'lumot beradi:

Fuelled by modern capitalism, new printing technologies and new transport means, many of the travelogues on Palestine treated the country not so much as a land of living histories and shared memories of ordinary people but more of a memorial to Western Christianity – a Christianity in search of a new identity in the midst of the raging struggle between scientific rationalism and scepticism, on the one hand, and literalist evangelist fundamentalism, on the other. Typically, a Church of England journal, The Church Quarterly Review of 1891, described Röhricht’s book as ‘indispensable’ to students of Palestinian geography. Röhricht’s survey of Palestine literature is most revealing with regard to two particular periods:

Uyg'onish davri va XIX asr. Bu ikki davr Yevropada Falastin adabiyotiga sezilarli ta'sir ko'rsatgan ikkita yirik texnologik inqilobni boshdan kechirdi: birinchidan, XV asr oxiridan boshlangan Uyg'onish davridagi bosma inqilob nashrlarning ommaviy tarqalish davrini boshlab berdi; ikkinchidan, XIX asrda qo'lda ishlaydigan Gutenberg uslubidagi bosma mashinaning o'rnini bug' kuchida ishlaydigan bosma mashina egalladi, bu esa bosib chiqarish va nashr etishni sanoat miqyosida amalga oshirish imkonini berdi. Falastin/Muqaddas yer haqidagi bilimlarni ishlab chiqarish, tarqatish va iste'mol qilishning bu benazir sanoat miqyosi 1830-yillardagi fotografiya inqilobi tufayli yanada kuchaydi; bu inqilob Yevropa, Amerika va Rossiya bozorlari uchun Muqaddas yer tasvirlarini ommaviy ravishda yaratishni boshladi.

the Renaissance period and the 19th century. These two periods experienced two major European technological revolutions with considerable impact on the Palestine literature: first, the Renaissance printing revolution press from the late 15th century introduced the era of mass circulation of publications and second, in the 19th century the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press by the steam-powered press allowed printing and publication on an industrial scale. This unprecedented industrial scale of production, circulation and consumption of Palestine/Holy Land knowledge was aided by the photographic revolution of the 1830s which began to produce masses of images of the Holy Land for the European, American and Russian markets.

Falastin adabiyotining, jumladan 19-asrda Falastin haqida va "Falastinga sayohatlar" mavzusidagi geografik nashrlarning ko'p miqdori bir necha asosiy Yevropa tillarida mavjud. Ulardan bir nechta misollar: Jon Lyuis Burkxardtning "Suriya va Muqaddas yerga sayohatlar" (1822); Tomas Raytning "Falastinga dastlabki sayohatlar" (1848), unda Falastinga kelgan dastlabki ziyoratchilarning hikoyalari jamlangan; Lesli Porterning "Suriya va Falastinga sayohatchilar uchun qo'llanma: ushbu mamlakatlarning geografiyasi, tarixi, qadimiy yodgorliklari va aholisi haqida hisobot bilan" 1-qism va 2-qism (1858, 1868); Vital Kuine "Suriya, Livan va Falastin: ma'muriy, statistik, tavsifiy va mulohazali geografiya" (1896); Titus Toblerning "Falastinga uchinchi sayohat" (1859); hamda "Falastinning geografik bibliografiyasi" (1867). Britaniyaning eng muhim va nufuzli nashriyotchilaridan biri bo'lgan Jon Myurrey Porterning "Suriya va Falastinga sayohatchilar uchun qo'llanma" asarini nashr etdi, unda Falastin alohida mamlakat sifatida ko'rsatilgan. Kitob Falastinni uchta asosiy bo'lim orqali tasvirlaydi: 1-qism "Falastin-Quddus" va "Janubiy Falastin" bo'lib, unda G'azodan Yaffogacha bo'lgan shaharlar kiritilgan, hamda 2-qism ikki bo'limdan iborat.

A few examples of the large amounts of Palestine literature, including geographic publications on and ‘travels in’ Palestine in the 19th century, in several key European languages, include John Lewis Burckhardt’s Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (1822); Thomas Wright’s Early Travels in Palestine (1848), which consists of accounts of the early pilgrims to Palestine, and Leslie Porter’s A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine: Including an Account of the Geography, History, Antiquities, Inhabitants of these Countries, Part 1 and 2 (1858, 1868), Vital Cuinet, Syrie, Liban et Palestine: géographie administrative, statistique, descriptive et raisonnée (1896); Titus Tobler’s Dritte Wanderung nach Palästina (1859); and Bibliographia Geographica Palestinae (1867). John Murray, one of the most important and influential publishers in Britain, produced Porter’s A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine, which treats Palestine as a separate country. This book describes Palestine in three major sections: Part I ‘Palestine-Jerusalem’ and ‘Southern Palestine’, which includes cities from Gaza to Jaffa, and Part 2 with two sections:

(a) "Shimoliy Falastin", ya'ni Jalila va Dimashqni o'z ichiga olgan hudud, va (b) "Shimoliy Suriya". Shunga o'xshash tarzda, Juzef Minning "Falastin geografiyasi" asari

(a) ‘Northern Palestine’, which included the Galilee and Damascus, and (b) ‘Northern Syria’. In a similar vein, Joseph Meen’s Geography of Palestine:

"Tarixiy va tavsifiy" (1865) hamda Uolter Makleodning "Falastin geografiyasi, yoki Muqaddas yer, shu jumladan Finikiya va Filistiya" (1856) kitoblari XIX asrning o‘rtalarida Britaniya va Yevropada nashr etilgan, Falastinning tarixiy geografiyasiga oid ko‘plab kitoblar orasida tipik namunalar edi. Bu tarixiy-geografik nashrlar Falastinni Suriya, Misr va Arabistondan alohida mamlakat va alohida geosiyosiy birlik sifatida ko‘rsatardi. Shuni ham ta’kidlash joizki, XX asr boshida qisqa vaqt paydo bo‘lgan "Janubiy Suriya" iborasi bu nashrlarda hech qachon tilga olinmagan.

Historical and Descriptive (1865) and Walter McLeod’s The Geography of Palestine, or, the Holy Land, Including Phoenicia and Philistia (1856) were typical of the large number of books on the historical geography of Palestine published in Britain and Europe in the middle of the 19th century. These historical-geographic publications treated Palestine as a distinct country and a geo-political unit separate from Syria, Egypt and Arabia. It is also worth pointing out that the expression ‘Southern Syria’, which appeared briefly in the early 20th century, was never mentioned in these publications.

XIX asrning ikkinchi yarmida maqolalar va kitoblarning arab tiliga tarjimalari Suriya va Falastinni aniq ajrata boshladi.

Crucially, in the second half of the 19th century translations of articles and books into Arabic began to distinguish clearly between Syria and Palestine.

Masalan, 1883-yilda Jorj Edvard Postning "Suriya va Falastin o'simliklari" nomli maqolasi arabcha "al-Muqtataf" jurnalida (1883) chop etildi. Bu jurnal 1876-yilda Suriya Protestant kollejida, bugungi Bayrut Amerika universitetida asos solingan bo'lib, 1884-yilda Qohiraga ko'chirilgan. Xuddi shu farq Postning arabcha "Nabat Suriyya wa-Filastin wa-al-Qatr al-Misri wa-Bawadiha" (Suriya, Falastin, Sinay va ularning cho'llari o'simliklari) asarida ham uchraydi:

For instance, in 1883 George Edward Post’s article ‘Plants of Syria and Palestine’ was published in the Arabic journal al-Muqtataf (1883), which was founded in 1876 at the Syrian Protestant College, today the American University of Beirut, before moving to Cairo in 1884. The same distinction is also found in the Arabic version of Post’s Nabat Suriyya wa-Filastin wa-al-Qatr al-Misri wa-Bawadiha (Flora of Syria and Palestine and Sinai:

A Handbook of the Flowering Plants and Ferns Native and Naturalized from the Taurus to Ras Muhammad and from the Mediterranean Sea to the Syrian Desert) (1896), bu 1880-yillarga kelib Falastin geografiyasi haqidagi Yevropa nashrlari va ularning arab tiliga tarjimalari zamonaviy arablarning Falastin haqidagi tasavvurlariga ta'sir ko'rsata boshlaganining, hamda Falastinning alohida geosiyosiy birlik ekani haqidagi tushunchaning shakllanib borayotganining ko'rsatkichi (Foster 2013).

A Handbook of the Flowering Plants and Ferns Native and Naturalized from the Taurus to Ras Muhammad and from the Mediterranean Sea to the Syrian Desert) (1896), an indication that by the 1880s European publications on Palestine geography and their translations into Arabic were beginning to have an impact on modern Arab perceptions of Palestine (Foster 2013) and the evolving notion that Palestine was a distinct geo-political unit.

Kembrij universitetining arab va fors tillari bo‘yicha olimi Guy Le Strange’ning o‘rta asrlarda Islom hukmronligi ostidagi Falastinning tarixiy geografiyasi bo‘yicha ishi XIX asrning ikkinchi yarmida Britaniyaning Falastinga bo‘lgan qiziqishiga yana bir o‘lchov qo‘shdi. Guy Le Strange’ning "Palestine under the Moslems; A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650" asari shunday ishlardan biridir.

The work of Guy Le Strange, a scholar of Arabic and Persian at Cambridge University, on the historical geography of Palestine under Islam in the Middle Ages, added another dimension to British preoccupation with Palestine in the second half of the 19th century. Guy Le Strange’s Palestine under the Moslems; A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650

1500-yilgacha. "Medieval Arab geograflarining asarlaridan tarjima qilingan" nomli kitob 1890-yilda Londonda Falastin tadqiqot jamg'armasi (PEF) qo'mitasi tomonidan nashr etilgan. 1865-yilda tashkil topgan PEF o'z faoliyatini allaqachon Falastin/Muqaddas yer masalalariga qaratgan edi. PEF'dan oldingi boshqa tashkilotlar ham Falastin/Muqaddas yerga e'tibor qaratgan va Falastin bilan Suriya o'rtasida aniq farq qilgan. Bunga PEF'dan oltmish yil oldin tashkil etilgan evangelist Britaniya Falastin assotsiatsiyasi ham kiradi. Falastin assotsiatsiyasining XIX asr boshlarida tashkil etilishiga Napoleon urushlari hamda 1798‒1801-yillardagi Frantsiyaning Misr va Falastinga bosqini va yurishi turtki bo'ldi. Napoleonning 1799-yilda Akkodagi mag'lubiyati jahon tarixining eng mashhur voqealaridan biridir. Yevropada Lotin salibchilar Quddus qirolligining so'nggi poytaxti sifatida tanilgan Akko shahridagi qamalining 1799-yilda Britaniya dengiz kuchlarining to'liq yordami bilan barbod bo'lishi mintaqadagi Britaniyaning bevosita ishtiroki yangi davrini boshlab berdi hamda Falastin bilan Suriya o'rtasidagi Britaniyaning diniy-siyosiy farqlanishining boshlanishiga olib keldi. Bu 1803-yildagi uzun romantik-evangelist "Falastin" she'rida yaqqol namoyon bo'ldi. She'rni ruhoniy Reginald Heber, keyinchalik Kalkutta episkopi sifatida tanilgan, Ser Valter Skott yordamida yozgan.

to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Mediaeval Arab Geographers, was published in London by the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) in 1890. The PEF, founded in 1865, had already focused on Palestine/ the Holy Land. Other antecedents to the PEF also focused on Palestine/the Holy Land and made a clear distinction between Palestine and Syria. This included the evangelical British Palestine Association, established sixty years before the PEF. The formation of the Palestine Association in the early 19th century had been spurred by the Napoleonic wars and the 1798‒1801 French invasion and campaign in Egypt and Palestine. Napoleon’s defeat at Acre in 1799 is one of the best-known episodes of modern world history. The collapse of his siege of Acre – the city known in Europe as the last capital of the Latin Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem – in 1799 with the full support of British maritime power ushered in a new era in British direct involvement in the region and the beginnings of British religio-political distinction between Palestine and Syria. This became evident in a long romantic-evangelical poem from 1803, Palestine, which was composed by a clergyman, Reginald Heber, later known as Bishop of Calcutta, with the help of Sir Walter Scott.

Mashhur she'r London teatrlarida ijro etildi, keyinchalik nashr qilindi va Oksford universitetining musiqa professori, bastakor Uilyam Krotch tomonidan kuyga solindi. Britaniya evangelistlarining Falastinga tobora kuchayib borayotgan aralashuvi Falastin assotsiatsiyasining nomi o'zgartirilganida ham namoyon bo'ldi. Bu assotsiatsiya 1805 yilda, frantsuzlar mintaqadan chiqib ketganidan ko'p o'tmay tashkil etilgan edi. Dastlab bu jamiyat 1805 yil martida Suriya jamiyati nomi bilan asos solingan edi. Bir oy o'tib, 1805 yil 24 aprelda uning asoschilari Suriya jamiyatini "bundan buyon Falastin assotsiatsiyasi deb ataladi" deb qaror qilishdi. Falastin assotsiatsiyasiga Uilyam Richard Hamilton (1777–1859) hammuallif bo'lib, uni boshqargan. U britaniyalik diplomat, sayohatchi, antikvar va misrshunos bo'lib, keyinchalik Tashqi ishlar vazirining o'rinbosari lavozimida xizmat qilgan.

The popular poem was recited in London theatres and was later published, and set to music by the composer William Crotch, a professor of music at Oxford University. The increasing British evangelical involvement in Palestine also became evident in the renaming of the Palestine Association, which was established in 1805 shortly after the departure of the French from the region. This society had initially been founded in March 1805 under the name Syrian Society. A month later, on 24 April 1805, its founders decided that the Syrian Society ‘shall henceforth be denominated The Palestine Association’. The Palestine Association was co-founded and led by William Richard Hamilton (1777–1859), a British diplomat, traveller, antiquarian and Egyptologist who later served as Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs.

Assotsiatsiya 1834-yilda rasman tarqatilgan va Qirollik Geografiya Jamiyatiga qo'shib yuborilgan (Silberman 1982; Kark and Goren 2011).

The Association was formally disbanded in 1834 and incorporated into the Royal Geographical Society (Silberman 1982; Kark and Goren 2011).

Le Strange’in “Palestine under the Moslems” (1890, 2010, 2014) asari muqovasiga Qubbat as-Sakhra (Sakhra gumbazi) tasvirini qo‘ygan va xaritalar hamda rasmlar kiritgan. U “o‘rta asr musulmon geograflari va sayyohlarining arab matnlarida yotgan ulkan axborot massasi”ni (Le Strange 1890: Preface) taqdim etar ekan, 10-asr falastinlik quddslik tarixchi va geograf al-Maqdisiy hamda uning “Ahsan at-Taqasim fi Ma‘rifat al-Aqalim” (“Mintaqalarni bilish uchun eng yaxshi bo‘linmalar”) asari (al-Maqdisiy 1994, 2002) ma’lumotlari asosida Islom hukmronligi ostidagi Jund Filastin haqida yorqin tavsiflar bergan. Le Strange al-Maqdisiyning mashhur asarini arab tilidan ingliz tiliga tarjima qilib, 1886 yilda “al-Mukaddasi’s Description of Syria and Palestine” nomi bilan nashr etgan. Bu sarlavha ham 19-asr Yevropa tafakkurida Falastin va Suriya o‘rtasidagi keskin geosiyosiy farqni yana bir bor ta’kidlaydi.

Le Strange’s Palestine under the Moslems (1890, 2010, 2014) placed the image of the Dome of the Rock on its cover and contained maps and illustrations. His work, which introduces ‘the mass of information which lies buried in the Arabic texts of the Moslem geographers and travellers of the Middle Ages’ (Le Strange 1890: Preface), provided vivid descriptions of Jund Filastin under Islam on the basis of the accounts of the 10th century Palestinian Jerusalemite historian and geographer al-Maqdisi and his work, Ahsan al-Taqasim Fi Ma’rifat al-Aqalim (The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions) (al-Maqdisi 1994, 2002). Le Strange had already translated from Arabic into English and published in 1886 al-Maqdisi’s famous work under the title al-Mukaddasi’s Description of Syria and Palestine, and this title by Le Strange also underlines the sharp geo-political distinction between Palestine and Syria in European thinking in the 19th century.

Falastin/Muqaddas yer bilan, bir tomondan, Suriya/al-Sham o'rtasidagi aniq farq faqat yevropaliklarga xos bo'lmagan; biz allaqachon ko'rganimizdek, XVII asrda falastinlik musulmon muallif Solih ibn Ahmad at-Tumurtoshiy bu farqni o'zining "Muqaddas yerni va uning chegaralarini eslashda to'liq bilim hamda Falastinni va uning chegaralarini hamda al-Shomni eslash" (1695‒1696) asarida qayd etgan.

The clear distinction between Palestine/the Holy Land, on the one hand, and Syria/al-Sham, on the other, was not exclusively European; as we have already seen, in the 17th century Palestinian Muslim author Salih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtashi made that distinction in his work The Complete Knowledge in Remembering the Holy Land and Its Boundaries and Remembering Palestine and its Boundaries and al-Sham (1695‒1696).

Shuningdek, o'rta asrlar va zamonaviy davrlarning ketma-ket avlodlardagi nasroniy ziyoratchilari Falastin, Suriya va Arabistonning geografik bo'linishlariga murojaat qilganlar. Falastin va Suriya tarixini ham klassik arab-islom manbalari, ham Yevropa nashrlari orqali yaxshi biladigan mahalliy ma'rifatli falastinliklar hamda Yevropa va rus ziyoratchilarining karvonlarini yaqindan kuzatgan oddiy falastinliklar uchun Falastin/Muqaddas yer bilan Suriya o'rtasidagi bu farq o'z-o'zidan ravshan bo'lgan. Falastinning asosiy shaharlarida, ya'ni Falastin nasroniylarining ko'pchiligi yashagan joylarda Rim-katolik Terra Sancta maktablari ochila boshlagan: ular Nosira (Nazaret), Yofo (Jaffa), Baytlahm (Bethlehem) va Quddusda paydo bo'lgan. Vatanida yoki chet elda Yevropa va rus maktablarida tahsil olgan falastinliklar uchun esa Falastin/Muqaddas yerning tarixiy geografiyasi bo'yicha Yevropada yaratilayotgan "bilim"lar, shuningdek, Falastinda Yevropa konsulliklarining ko'payishi katta qiziqish va bir qadar tashvish uyg'otgan. XIX asrning o'rtalaridan aloqa vositalarining yaxshilanishi va Falastinda bir qator Yevropa konsulliklarining ochilishi bilan XVIII asrdagi "Buyuk sayohat" o'rnini "Kuk sayohati" egalladi. "Buyuk sayohat" asosan badavlat yuqori tabaqa Yevropa yigitlarining Italiya shaharlari bo'ylab an'anaviy safari edi. Uning o'rnini Tomas Kuk tashkil etgan, o'rta tabaqa ommaviy turizmi va "Yunoniston, Falastin va Misr" bo'ylab sayohatlar egalladi. Tomas Kuk 1898-yilda Nemis imperatori Vilgelm II ning Falastinga tashrifini ham uyushtirgan. "Kuk sayohati" va Tomas Kukning Muqaddas yer bo'yicha turizmi Falastin "geografiyasi" hamda Muqaddas yer haqida ko'plab Yevropa tillarida nashrlarning paydo bo'lishiga sabab bo'ldi. Ularning ko'pchiligi ma'rifatli falastinlik elita vakillari va Usmonli amaldorlariga ham qo'lyetimli edi. Ommaviy darajada Yevropa ommaviy turizmi Falastindagi xalq tiliga ta'sir ko'rsatdi va vaqt o'tishi bilan falastin arab tiliga ko'plab frantsuz va italyan so'zlarini kiritdi – bugungi kunda ham keng qo'llanilayotgan otel (otel), şofyor (chauffeur), dush (douche), beton (baton), moda (mode), kanape (canabai), salon, balkon (balconeh), bilet (billet), farmatsiya (farmashiyyah), suvenir (souvenir), lift (ascenseur, ascensel), hujjatlar papkasi (dossier, dusiyyeh), avtomobil (automobile), benzin (Benzina, banzin) va garaj (garage, karaj).

Also, successive generations of medieval and modern Christian pilgrims referred to geographical subdivision of Palestine, Syria and Arabia. For educated local Palestinians, familiar with both classical Arab Islamic writings on Palestine and al-Sham and European publications on Palestine, and for ordinary Palestinians observing the caravans of European and Russian pilgrims at close quarters, this distinction between Palestine/the Holy Land and Syria would be taken for granted. Western-funded, Roman Catholic Terra Sancta schools based in the urban centres of Palestine where most Palestinian Christians resided began to appear in Nazareth, Jaffa, Bethlehem and Jerusalem, and for Palestinians educated in the European and Russian schools at home or abroad the production of the European ‘knowledge’ on the historical geography of Palestine/the Holy Land as well as the mushrooming of European consulates in Palestine would also be a matter of great interest and some concern. From the mid-19th century, with the improvement of communication and establishment of several European consulates in Palestine, the ‘Grand Tour’ of the 18th century – the traditional trip undertaken by mainly upper class European young men of means through Italian cities – was replaced by the ‘Cook Tour’ (organised by Thomas Cook): middle class early mass tourism and travels in ‘Greece, Palestine and Egypt’. Thomas Cook arranged for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II to visit Palestine in 1898. The ‘Cook’s Tour’ and Thomas Cook Holy Land Tourism also spawned numerous publications in many European languages on the ‘geography of Palestine’ and the Holy Land, many of which were also accessible to members of the educated Palestinian elite and Ottoman officials. On a popular level, European mass tourism in Palestine impacted on the Palestinian vernacular and, over time, introduced many French and Italian words into Palestinian Arabic – words such as hotel (otel), chauffeur, douche, beton (baton), mode (moda), canapé (canabai), salon, balcon (balconeh), billet (bolet), farmacia (farmashiyyah), souvenir, ascenseur, (ascensel), dossier (dusiyyeh), automobile, Benzina (banzin) and garage (karaj) still commonly in use today.

19-asrda va 20-asr boshlarida Yevropada Falastin haqida kitoblarda va sayohat kundaliklarida yaratilgan bilimlar ko'p jihatdan Injil tadqiqotlari, Muqaddas Kitob geografiyasi va Sharqshunoslik ta'siri ostida qolgan edi. Bu yondashuvda Falastin arablari "qadimgi Injil manzarasining oddiy ilovasi ... uzoq o'tmishning 'soyalari', vaqt ichida muallaq qolgan 'qoldiqlar' sifatida" tasvirlangan (Kamel 2014, 2015), arab fallohin (dehqonlar) esa

In the 19th century and early 20th century much of the European knowledge production on Palestine in books and travel diaries remained dominated by Biblical Studies, Scriptural Geography, Orientalism in which the Palestinian Arabs were portrayed as a ‘simple appendix to the ancient Biblical [landscape] … as “shadows” of the far- off past, “fossils” suspended in time’ (Kamel 2014, 2015), while the Arab fallahin (peasants)

…Zamonaviy Falastinning ... ("biblik yahudiylar") ramzlari sifatida qaralgan. (Gil, E. Note: the source text is cut off mid-sentence, so the translation ends at the same point. The original's opening fragment "of modern Palestine were viewed as symbols" is rendered as "Zamonaviy Falastinning" plus an ellipsis, since the preceding words are not in the provided text.

of modern Palestine were viewed as symbols of the ‘biblical Jews’ (Gil, E.

2006). Biroq, XIX asrning o'rtalaridayoq, Muqaddas Yer arxeologi va Muqaddas Kitob geografiyasi bo'yicha olim Edvard Robinson (1794‒1863), Levantga Yevropaliklarning sayohatlari keng tarqalgan bir davrda, 1860-yillarning boshida yozib, «Falastin, yoki Palestina, hozirda Muqaddas Yerning eng keng tarqalgan nomi» deb ta'kidlaydi (Robinson, E. 1865: 15; shuningdek qarang: Robinson 1841; va Robinson va boshqalar 1860).

2006). However, as early as the mid-19th century, biblical archaeologist and scriptural geographer Edward Robinson (1794‒1863), writing in the early 1860s when travel by Europeans to the Levant became widespread, notes ‘Palestine, or Palestina, now the most common name for the Holy Land’ (Robinson, E. 1865: 15; see also Robinson 1841; and Robinson et al. 1860).

Bu kuzatuv Victor Guérin’ning yetti jildli "Description géographique, historique et archéologique de la Palestine" (1868‒1880; shuningdek, Guérin 1881–1883) asarida ham yaqqol namoyon bo‘ladi. 1860-yillarda britaniyaliklar "Palestine Exploration Fund" (PEF) tashkilotiga asos soldilar; u G‘arbiy Falastinni o‘rganish bo‘yicha "Survey" loyihasini homiylik qildi va Falastinga geografik xaritalash ekspeditsiyalarini uyushtirdi. PEF Britaniyada tashkil etilgan "ilmiy jamiyatlar"ning tipik namunasi edi va imperiyaning qarashlarini hamda nazariyalarini soxta-ilmiy Sharqshunoslik (Orientalist) tafakkuri va dalillar tizimiga aylantirib, Britaniya siyosatini va niyatlarini shakllantirishda ishtirok etdi; bu esa 1917-yil 2-noyabrdagi Balfur deklaratsiyasida o‘z cho‘qqisiga chiqdi. PEF ning asosiy siyosiy maqsadlaridan biri uning o‘z nashri orqali aniq ko‘rinib turardi: "Names and Places in the Old and New Testament and Apocrypha: With their Modern Identifications" (Palestine Exploration Fund 1889). Palestine Exploration Fund Eski Ahd bilan bog‘liq 1150 dan ortiq joy nomini sanab o‘tdi va 162

This observation is also evident from Victor Guérin’s seven-volume Description géographique, historique et archéologique de la Palestine (1868‒1880; also Guérin 1881–1883). In the 1860s, the British had set up the Palestine Exploration Fund, which sponsored the Survey of Western Palestine and mounted geographical map-making expeditions in Palestine. The PEF was a typical example of the ‘learned societies’ founded in Britain and was responsible for processing the empire’s notions and theories into pseudo-scientific Orientalist thinking and argumentation, leading to the shaping of British policy and intentionality which finds its apotheosis in the Balfour Declaration of 2 November 1917. One of the main political motives of the PEF was clear from its own publication: Names and Places in the Old and New Testament and Apocrypha: With their Modern Identifications (Palestine Exploration Fund 1889). The Palestine Exploration Fund listed more than 1150 place names related to the Old Testament and 162

Yangi Ahd bilan bog'liq. Britaniyaning Falastindagi hukmronligi rasman 1917-yil 11-dekabrda boshlandi, o'sha kuni general Allenbi Quddusning Eski shahriga rasman kirdi. Britaniya harbiy qo'shinlari Falastinni egallaganidan ko'p o'tmay, Britaniya ma'muriyati mahalliy falastinlik aholidan toponimik ma'lumotlar to'plashga kirishdi. Yevropaliklarning "Injildagi joy nomlari"ga va Quddusga bo'lgan qiziqishi, shuningdek Yevropa va Amerikada "Injilshunoslik" fanining rivojlanishi rasmiy Usmoniylar tafakkuriga va ba'zi falastinlik millatchi mualliflarning asarlariga ma'lum ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Ikkinchilari zionizmga qarshi qarashni shakllantirishga intilib, zamonaviy falastin millatchiligini birlamchi (primordialistik) tushunchalarga, Kan'on ildizlariga va "Kan'on yurti" (Kan'on mamlakati)ga tayanadigan qilib ko'rsatishga harakat qildilar (masalan, qarang: Cattan 1969: 3‒4).

related to the New Testament. British rule in Palestine formally began on 11 December 1917 when General Allenby officially entered the Old City of Jerusalem. Shortly after the British military occupation of Palestine, the British authorities set out to gather toponymic information from the local Palestinian inhabitants. The European preoccupation with ‘biblical place names’ and with Jerusalem, and the European and American growth of ‘Bible Studies’, had some impact on official Ottoman thinking and on the writings of some Palestinian nationalist authors. The latter sought to construct a counter-Zionist discourse by couching modern Palestinian nationalism in primordialist terms, rooted in Canaanite roots and the ‘Land of Canaan’ (see, for instance, Cattan 1969: 3‒4).