Arabcha mozaikalar san'atini bildiruvchi atama fusayfisaa dir. Bu arabcha atama Vizantiya yunoncha Ψηφιδωτό atamasining transliteratsiyasidir va mozaika san'ati Vizantiya imperiyasi davrida ajoyib darajada gullab-yashnagan. Vizantiya uslubidagi mozaikalar Provincia Palaestina (Prima, Secunda va Tertia) hududidagi cherkovlar, sinagogalar va ibodatxonalarni bezab turgan; IV asrdan boshlab bu joylar devor, shift va pol mozaikalari bilan nafis tarzda zeb berilgan. Yustinian I (527–565) tomonidan qurdirilgan Eliya Kapitolina (Quddus) shahridagi Yangi cherkov (Νέα Ἐκκλησία) hamda Konstantin davrida katta bazilika sifatida qurilgan Betlehemdagi Tug'ilish cherkovi ham mozaikalar bilan bezatilgan. Tug'ilish cherkovining rimcha geometrik naqshlarga ega asl mozaika poli bugungi kunda qisman saqlanib qolgan. Biz allaqachon ko'rsatganimizdek, Yunoncha (Παλαιστινη) "Palestina" nomining o'zi 560‒565 miloddan avvalgi yillarga oid mashhur Madaba mozaika xaritasida topilgan bo'lib, u shaharda o'sha paytda Vizantiyaning Palaestina Prima viloyatiga kirgan edi. Shunga o'xshash arab-vizantiya uslubidagi mozaikalar Umaviylar davridagi Hisham saroyi (Qasr Hisham) hududida, Quddusdan shimolda, Ariha shahridan 5 kilometr shimolda joylashgan muhim dastlabki islom arxeologik yodgorligi Xirbat al-Mafjarda topilgan. Ushbu yodgorlikdagi qazishmalardan topilgan ashyolarning ko'pchiligi hozirda bosib olingan Sharqiy Quddusdagi Rokfeller muzeyida (ilgari Falastin arxeologiya muzeyi) saqlanmoqda.

The Arabic term for mosaics is fusayfisaa. The Arab term is a transliteration of the Byzantine Greek term Ψηφιδωτό and mosaic art spectacularly flourished during the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine-style mosaics decorated the churches, synagogues and temples of Provincia Palaestina (Prima, Secunda and Tertia) which, from the 4th century onwards, were exquisitely embellished with wall, ceiling and flour mosaics. Both the Nea Church (Νέα Ἐκκλησία) in Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem), erected by Justinian I (527–565),3 and the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, built as a great Constantinian basilica, were decorated with mosaics. The original mosaic floor of the Church of the Nativity, with its typical Roman geometric motifs, is partially preserved today. As we have already shown, the very name of the country Palaestina, in Greek (Παλαιστινη), was found on the famous Madaba Mosaic Map, dated 560‒565 AD, in a town which at the time was part of the Byzantine province of Palaestina Prima. Similar Arab Byzantine-style mosaics were found at the Umayyad Hisham’s Palace (Qaṣr Hisham) at Khirbat al-Mafjar, an important early Islamic archaeological site located 5 kilometres north of the town of Jericho. Many of the finds from the excavations at the site are now held in the Rockefeller Museum (formerly Palestine Archaeological Museum) in occupied East Jerusalem.

Falastin mozaikasi (devor, shift va pol) sanoati ham Quddusdagi Ayyubiy va Mamluk qurilish dasturlari ta'sirida gullab-yashnadi va yanada rivojlandi. Salib yurishlaridan keyingi davrda Ayyubiylar va Mamluklar tomonidan Falastinning mamlakat ichkarisiga qaratilishi va markazlashuvi hamda natijada tog' shaharlarining (al-Xalil, al-Quds, Nablus, Safad) qayta yuksalishi Mujir al-Din al-Ulaymiyning "Al-Quds va al-Xalilning ulug' tarixi" asarida aks etgan. Mujir al-Din nafaqat "Filastin" atamasiga takror-takror murojaat qiladi, balki Falastinda mintaqaviy ijtimoiy va madaniy o'ziga xosliklarning shakllanishiga, xususan, al-Xalil (va Jabal al-Xalil hududi) hamda al-Quds (Jabal al-Quds hududi) shaharlari bilan bog'liq falastinlik mintaqaviy san'at va o'ziga xoslikka ham ishora qiladi. Ayyubiylar, Mamluklar va Usmonlilar davrida shakllanib, rivojlangan bu ikki shahar o'rtasidagi yaqin ijtimoiy, iqtisodiy, madaniy va badiiy aloqalar asrlar davomida saqlanib qoldi va zamonaviy davrgacha yetib keldi. Ular Falastin ichida kuchli mintaqaviy o'ziga xosliklarning shakllanishiga ichki falastinlik omillar qanday hissa qo'shganini ko'rsatadi. Bu o'ziga xosliklar, xuddi 15-asrda yashagan Mujir al-Din hamda 17-asrdagi Xayr al-Din al-Ramliy va at-Tumurtoshiy kabi falastinlik musulmon yozuvchi va qozilarning asarlari singari, Filastin tarixi va xotiralarini tirik saqlash orqali Falastin tushunchasiga katta hissa qo'shdi.

The Palestine mosaic (wall, ceiling and floor) industry also flourished and grew further under the impact of the Ayyubid and Mamluk building programmes in Jerusalem. The reorientation and re-centring of Palestine in the post-Crusader era by the Ayyubids and Mamluks towards the interior of the country and the rise again of the cities of the mountain (al-Khalil, al-Quds, Nablus, Safad) as a consequence are reflected in work of Mujir al-Din al-ʿUlaymi, The Glorious History of al-Quds and al-Khalil. Mujir al-Din not only repeatedly refers to the term Filastin but also points to the evolution of regional social and cultural identities in Palestine and in particular Palestinian regional arts and identity linked to the cities of al-Khalil (and the area of Jabal al-Khalil) and al-Quds (the area of Jabal al-Quds). These close social, economic, cultural and artistic links between the two cities, which were formed and flourished during the Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman periods, have endured for centuries and survived into the modern period; and they point to the way internal Palestinian factors contributed to the formation of strong regional identities within Palestine, identities which, like the works of Palestinian Muslim writers and qadis – Mujir al-Din in the 15th century and Khair al-Din al-Ramli and al-Tumurtashi in the 17th century – contributed greatly to the concept of Palestine by keeping the history and memories of Filastin alive.

Ayyubid va Mamluk davrlarida Falastin ijtimoiy, madaniy va me'moriy jihatdan Qohira va Dimashq ta'siri ostida bo'ldi. Shu bilan birga, Nablus, al-Quds va al-Xalil kabi Falastinning asosiy shaharlari o'zlarida ishlab chiqarilgan mahsulotlarning ko'p qismini Dimashq va Qohiraga eksport qilar edi (masalan, Ibn Battuta 2005: 57 ga qarang). Afsuski, biroq falastinliklarning ichki mustaqil faoliyati hamda Falastinning ishlab chiqarish va ijodiy imkoniyatlari ko'pincha tarixchilar tomonidan e'tibordan chetda qoldiriladi yoki yashirib qo'yiladi. Ular ko'pincha imperiya xronologiyalariga berilib ketgan bo'lib, Ayyubiy va Mamluk davridagi Quddusning islom san'ati va me'morchiligi ortidagi tashqi ta'sirlar haqida fikr bildirishni afzal ko'radi, Falastin tarixini ichkaridan ko'rmaydi va falastinliklarning mustaqil faoliyatini nazardan qochiradi. Masalan, tarixchilar ko'pincha Quddusdagi Tankiziyya madrasasining uslubiga e'tibor qaratadi, uning uslubi Dimashqdagi Tankiziyya madrasasiga o'xshaydi (masalan, Rosen-Ayalon 2006: 119, 155 ga qarang), lekin Falastin ichida paydo bo'lgan mustaqil falastin san'at maktablarini ko'rmaydi. Darhaqiqat, Mamluk davrida o'ziga xos falastin hunarmandchilik an'analari va san'at maktablari shakllandi, ular al-Xalilning shisha sanoatida hamda Falastin mozaika maktabida namoyon bo'ldi. Bu an'analar zamonaviy davrgacha saqlanib qoldi. XIII asrda Mamluk davrida al-Xalil gullab-yashnagan va katta hurmatga sazovor bo'lgan shisha sanoatini rivojlantirdi, jumladan, arabcha zujaj al-xalili nomi bilan tanilgan shisha zargarlik buyumlari ishlab chiqarildi. Al-Xalilning Eski shahrida hozirgacha "Shishasozlar mahalla" deb nomlangan tuman mavjud, Xevron shishasi esa bugungi kunga qadar shahar uchun sayyohlik jozibasi bo'lib xizmat qilmoqda. An'anaga ko'ra, shisha mahalliy xom ashyo, jumladan, O'lik dengizdan olingan natriy karbonat yordamida eritilgan. Al-Xalilda ishlab chiqarilgan rangli shisha oynalar va shishadan yasalgan buyuk san'at asarlari Quddusning Eski shahridagi Qubbat as-Sahro (Qubbatus-Sahra) ni ham bezaydi (al-Ju'beh 2008). Al-Xalilning shisha chiroqlari va shisha bezaklari Misr, Suriya, Arabiston va Afrikaga eksport qilingan. Shahar XIX asrda Arab dunyosi va Falastinga boradigan G'arblik sayyohlar orasida shisha ishlab chiqarishi bilan mashhur bo'ldi. U, shuningdek, 1873-yilda Venada bo'lib o'tgan Jahon ko'rgazmasida shisha bezaklari bilan namoyish etildi.4

During the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods Palestine came under social, cultural and architectural influences from Cairo and Damascus. But also the key Palestinian cities such as Nablus, al-Quds and al-Khalil exported much of their locally manufactured goods to Damascus and Cairo (see, for instance, Ibn Battuta 2005: 57). Unfortunately, however, the internal Palestinian agency and the productive and creative capacities of Palestine are often ignored or glossed over by historians who are frequently preoccupied with imperial chronologies and prefer to comment on the external influences behind the Islamic art and architecture of Ayyubid and Mamluk Jerusalem, failing to see Palestinian history from within or the autonomous agency of the Palestinians. For instance, historians often point to the aesthetics of the Tankiziyyah Madrasah in Jerusalem, whose style resembles the Tankiziyah Madrasah in Damascus (see e.g. Rosen-Ayalon 2006: 119, 155), but fail to see independent Palestinian schools of arts emerging within Palestine. Indeed, distinct Palestinian craft traditions and schools of arts developed during the Mamluk period and these are found in the glass industry of al-Khalil and the Palestinian School of Mosaics. These traditions have survived into the modern period. In the 13th century during the Mamluk period al-Khalil developed a flourishing and highly respected glass industry, including glass jewellery known in Arabic as zujaj al-khalili; the Old City of al-Khalil still includes a district named the ‘Glass-Blower Quarter’ and Hebron glass continues to the present time to serve as a tourist attraction for the city. Traditionally, the glass was melted using local raw materials, including sodium carbonate from the Dead Sea. Stained glass windows and great works of art in glass produced in al-Khalil also adorn the Dome of the Rock in the Old City of Jerusalem (al-Ju’beh 2008). Al-Khalil’s glass lamps and glass ornaments were exported to Egypt, Syria, Arabia and Africa. The city became well known for its glass production throughout the Arab world and to Western travellers to Palestine in the modern period. It was also represented with glass ornaments at the World Exposition of 1873 in Vienna.4

Xalil shahridagi shishasozlik sanoatida bo'lgani kabi, tarixiy Falastinning boshqa uzluksizliklarini ham Falastin va Yaqin Sharqda uzoq tarixga ega bo'lgan mozaika san'ati orqali ko'rsatish mumkin; bu san'at mil. avv. III ming yillikda Mesopotamiyadagi saroy va ibodatxona binolaridan boshlangan. Yaqin Sharqning qadimgi mozaika san'ati rangli shisha, tosh (toshdan yasalgan mozaika) yoki boshqa materiallarning mayda bo'laklaridan yasalgan naqsh va tasvirlardan iborat bo'lib, u bezak san'atida yoki ichki bezak sifatida ishlatilgan. Naqshli va tasvirli mozaikalar klassik davrda keng tarqalgan.

As in the glasswork industry of al-Khalil, other continuities of historic Palestine can be illustrated by the mosaic art which has a long history in Palestine and the Middle East, starting with palaces and temple buildings in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. The ancient mosaic art of the Middle East consisted of patterns and images made from the assembly of small pieces of coloured glass, stone (pebble mosaics) or other materials, used in decorative arts or as interior decoration. Mosaics with patterns and pictures became widespread in classical times.

Islomiy Falastin va butun Shom Kech antik davr vizantiya me'moriy va mozaika san'atining moddiy merosini meros qilib oldi, bu moddiy va madaniy meros esa Umaviylar davridagi Filastin va Shomda monumental diniy binolar va saroylar qurilishida keng qo'llanildi. Bu binolar Quddusdagi ilk buyuk islomiy diniy binolarni, 691 yilda yakunlangan Qoya gumbazini hamda 715 yilda yakunlangan Damashqdagi Umaviylar masjidini o'z ichiga oldi. Qoya gumbazi va unga qo'shni Zanjir gumbazi Filastinning eng ajoyib islomiy merosining ayrim jihatlarini ham aks ettirdi; bu meros Ayyubiylar, Mamluklar va Usmonlilar davrida asrlar davomida ko'plab hunarmand va san'atkorlarga ilhom bag'ishlashda davom etdi. Katharina Galor va Hanswulf Bloedhorn Mamluklar davrida mozaika va shisha buyumlar bo'yicha mustaqil filastin maktabining paydo bo'lishi haqida shunday deb yozadilar:

Islamic Palestine and al-Sham as a whole inherited the material heritage and Byzantine mosaic art of Late Antiquity and this material and cultural heritage was deployed widely in the construction of monumental religious buildings and palaces in Umayyad Filastin and al-Sham. These buildings included the first great Islamic religious buildings in Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock, completed in 691 AD, and the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, completed in 715. The Dome of the Rock and the neighbouring Dome of the Chain also embodied some of the most spectacular Islamic heritage of Palestine, a heritage which continued to inspire generations of craftsmen and artists for centuries under the Ayyubids, Mamluks and Ottomans. Katharina Galor and Hanswulf Bloedhorn comment on the emergence of an independent Palestinian school of mosaics and glasswork during the Mamluk period:

Rangli va oltinlangan shishadan, rangli pastadan, firuza rangli fayansdan va sadafdan, shuningdek rangli tosh va marmardan yasalgan mozaikalar ba'zi Mamluk binolarini bezab turgan. Eng ta'sirli devor mozaikasi al-Madrasa al-Tankiziyyada joylashgan. Uning mihrobi ko'p rangli marmarning ingichka chiziqlari bilan qoplangan bo'lib, uning ikki tomonida qayta ishlatilgan salib yurishchilari ustunlari turibdi. Bu bezaklar Quddus, Qubbat as-Sakhra (Qubbatu-s-Sakhra) dagi Umaviylar davri devor mozaikalarining ayrim xususiyatlariga, xususan, uning sadafli bezaklariga aniq o'xshaydi. Ko'rinishidan, bu kech qayta tiklangan san'at Qubbat as-Sakhradagi yettinchi asr mozaikalaridan ilhom olgan. Tarixiy manbalarga ko'ra, Mamluk davrida ham Qubbat as-Sakhra, ham Zanjir qubbasidagi devor mozaikalari tiklangan. Suriya va Misrda o'xshash turdagi devor mozaikalari bo'lsa-da, Quddus bir necha asrlar davomida faoliyat yuritgan haqiqiy Falastin maktabining vatani bo'lganga o'xshaydi. (Galor va Bloedhorn 2013: 230)

Mosaics of colored and gilded glass, colored paste, turquoise faience, and mother-of-pearl, as well as colored stone and marble, embellished some of the ... Mamluk buildings. The most impressive wall mosaic is located in al-Madrasa al-Tankiziyya. It mihrab is covered with narrow strips of polychrome marble, flanked by reused Crusader columns with capitals, clearly analogous to certain features of Umayyad wall mosaics in the Dome of the Rock, in particular with its mother-of-pearl inlay ... It appears that this late re-emerging art draw its inspiration from seventh-century mosaics in the Dome of the Rock. Historical sources indicate that restorations of wall mosaics were carried out during the Mamluk period in both the Dome of the Rock and the Dome of Chain. Although Syria and Egypt have similar types of wall mosaics, Jerusalem appears to have been the home of a genuine Palestinian school that lasted for centuries. (Galor and Bloedhorn 2013: 230)

Falastin shisha buyumlari, mozaika va hunarmandchilik mahsulotlarining sifati qat'iy nazorat ostida bo'lgan, va Mamluk iqtisodiy nazorat tizimining bu merosi zamonaviy falastincha mahalliy atamalarda, masalan, hisba, hamda falastin oilaviy familiyalarida, masalan, al-Xalil (Xevron) shahridagi yetakchi musulmon oilasi bo'lgan Muhtasib nomida saqlanib qolgan. Falastin shisha buyumlari, mozaika va hunarmandchilik mahsulotlarining sifati qat'iy nazorat ostida bo'lgan, va Mamluk iqtisodiy nazorat tizimining bu merosi zamonaviy falastincha mahalliy atamalarda, masalan, hisba, hamda falastin oilaviy familiyalarida, masalan, al-Xalil (Xevron) shahridagi yetakchi musulmon oilasi bo'lgan Muhtasib nomida saqlanib qolgan. Islomiy Falastinda muhtasib tizimi ingliz tarixchisi E. P. Tompson iborasini qo'llagan holda aytganda, kapitalizmgacha bo'lgan "axloqiy iqtisod"ning bir qismi bo'lib, shariat tamoyillari, ijtimoiy adolat va jamoat manfaatlari ta'sirida shakllangan hamda Yaqin Sharqda keng targ'ib etilgan edi. Muhtasib Mamluk sultoni tomonidan tayinlanadigan muhim amaldor bo'lib, uning vazifalariga Falastin, Misr va al-Shomdagi narxlarni tartibga solish, bozorlar va savdoni nazorat qilish hamda tekshirish kirardi. Bu xilma-xil vazifalarga, shuningdek, jamoat ishlarining shariat (Islom huquqi) axloqiy talablariga muvofiq olib borilishini ta'minlash ham kirardi. O'rta asrlarda shahar markazlarida epidemiyalar muntazam ro'y berib turardi, sanitariya sharoitlari va jamoat hammomlari hamda shaharlardagi ommaviy suv ichish favvoralari uchun toza suvning uzluksiz ta'minlanishi Falastinda islomiy muhandislik sohasining, butun musulmon olamida esa asosiy yutuqlari bo'ldi. Yozma rasmiy qo'llanmalarga tayanib, muhtasib bozorlardagi sanitariya sharoitlarini, o'lchov va tarozilarni, pulni, mahsulot va ishlab chiqarilgan tovarlar narxini, jamoat joylarining xavfsizligini hamda ochiqdan-ochiq sotiladigan oziq-ovqatni nazorat qilardi. Shuningdek, u hunarmandlar va quruvchilarning o'z kasbi uchun belgilangan talablarga hamda qurilish standartlariga rioya etishini ta'minlardi (Ibn al-Ukhuwah 1976; Broadbridge 1999; Hill, D. 1984).

The quality of Palestinian glasswork, mosaics and crafts was tightly regulated and this legacy of the Mamluk system of regulation has survived in modern Palestinian vernacular terms such as Hisbe and in Palestinian family names such as the Muhtasib, a leading Muslim family in the city of al-Khalil (Hebron). The quality of Palestinian glasswork, mosaics and crafts was tightly regulated and this legacy of the Mamluk system of economic regulation has survived in modern Palestinian vernacular terms such as Hisbe and in Palestinian family names such as the Muhtasib, a leading Muslim family in the city of al-Khalil (Hebron). The muhtasib system in Islamic Palestine was part of the pre-capitalist ‘moral economy’ (to borrow an expression by English historian E. P. Thompson), influenced by sharia principles of social justice and the public good and widely promoted in the Near East. The muhtasib was an important official appointed by the Mamluk sultan whose duties included the regulation of prices and supervision and inspection of bazaars and trade in Palestine, Egypt and al-Sham. These varied duties also included ensuring that public business was conducted in accordance with the ethical requirements of the sharia (Islamic law). Recurrent epidemics were a regular phenomenon in the urban centres of the Middle Ages and hygienic conditions and the continuous supply of clean water, for public baths and public drinking fountains in the cities, were major achievements of Islamic civil engineering in Palestine throughout the Muslim world. Relying on written official manuals, the muhtasib supervised the regulation of hygienic conditions in the bazaars, weights and measures, money, prices of produce and manufactured goods, safety of public places and food sold publicly. They also ensured that craftsmen and builders adhered to the specification set for their craft and construction standards (Ibn al-Ukhuwah 1976; Broadbridge 1999; Hill, D. 1984).