当哲学性的神学问题在穆斯林中间蔓延开来时——即在倭马亚王朝末期与阿拔斯王朝初期——一些学者如哈桑·巴士里、加伊兰·达马什基和贾赫姆·本·萨夫万开始探讨各种经院学问题。此后又出现了熟悉亚里士多德逻辑的学者,他们在某些希腊哲学著作被译成阿拉伯文之后,也开始研读其中的一些书籍。经院问题的研究随之扩展,他们开始研习被称为“卡拉姆”(Kalam)的学问。属于这一群体的学者有瓦绥勒·本·阿塔、阿慕尔·本·欧拜德、阿布·胡宰勒·阿拉拉夫和奈宰姆。 然而,他们的研究并非完整的哲学研究,而是逐步扩展的哲学思想研究,直至他们精通各种哲学观点,并通过追溯某些问题而非全部问题,了解各哲学流派对某些议题的看法。他们在涉猎部分哲学研究的同时,仍坚守对《古兰经》的信仰。正因如此,他们并未离开伊斯兰的范畴,反而在理性思辨上有所拓展,在论证上给予自己更大的空间,但其目的仅在于确立能够增强信仰(īmān)的内容,并消除在信仰真主时的拟人化成分。结果,尽管他们的教义各不相同,信仰上并未出现偏差,他们都仍是捍卫伊斯兰的穆斯林。

When philosophical issues relating to theology infiltrated the minds of the Muslims, during the end of the Ummayad reign and the beginning of Abbasid rule, certain scholars like al-Hasan al Basri, Ghaylan al-Dimashqi and Jahm ibn Safwan began to address various scholastic issues. Then, after them came scholars who were acquainted with Aristotelian logic and they familiarised themselves with some of the books of Greek philosophy after they had been translated. The study of scholastic issues expanded and they began to study the science known as Kalam. They were scholars such as Wasil ibn 'Ata, 'Amr ibn 'Ubayd, Abu Hudhayl al-'Allaf and an-Nazzaam. However, their studies were not complete philosophical studies but the expanding study of philosophical thoughts until they became well-versed with different philosophical views, and that of the view of each group of philosophers in some issues by pursuing them and not all issues. In addition to confining themselves to some philosophical studies they restricted themselves to their belief in the Qur’ān. That is why they did not leave the fold of Islam, rather they expanded in reasoning, and they gave themselves free reign in the proofs, but only to establish that which will strengthen imān and a desire to eliminate anthropomorphic elements from the belief in Allah . As a result, no deviation occurred in the beliefs despite their differing dogmas, so all of them remained Muslims who were defending Islam.

在辩论学家（Mutakallimūn）之后，出现了一些人，他们没有发展成为团体或学派（mazhab），即便穆斯林也没有大规模地追随他们，尽管一些人喜爱他们的学问。他们是辩论学家之后穆斯林国家中出现的穆斯林哲学家。看来，使他们能够在穆斯林中存在的原因，是哲学思想的知识和哲学书籍使这些学问在当时的人们中颇具吸引力。看来，使这些人能够在穆斯林中存在的原因是，在那个时代，哲学思想的研究和哲学书籍引起了人们的兴趣。于是，一些人承担起了推广这些思想研究的责任。因此，他们以深入而广泛的方式研究这些思想，这种研究是全面而不受限制的。他们追随每一条思路的全部内容。他们学习了足够多的哲学，使自己具备哲学思考的能力并产出哲学成果。正是由于对哲学的这些深入而广泛的研究，尤其是对某一特定类型的希腊哲学的研究，才使穆斯林中出现了哲学家。已知的第一位穆斯林哲学家是雅库布·金迪（Ya'qub al Kindi，卒于公元874年，即回历260年）。在他之后，穆斯林哲学家相继涌现。因此，哲学家只有在辩论学家出现之后、在那些哲学家的方法论已经盛行并成为研究、辩论和论战的对象之后才得以涌现。在许多辩论学家和乌莱玛（学者）眼中，哲学变得不可容忍。在此之前，穆斯林中并没有哲学家。因此，在穆斯林地区的乌莱玛中，既有辩论学家，也有哲学家。然而，辩论学家与哲学家之间存在差别。辩论学家精通一些哲学思想。 至于哲学家，他们是哲学的学者。正因如此，哲学家们常常视Mutakalimun为无知之人。哲学家认为Mutakallimūn是诡辩和论争之人。而哲学家，即那些以理性研究正确哲学问题的人。

Then after the Mutakallimūn came the individuals who did not reach to the stage of becoming groups and mazhabs, and even the Muslims did not follow them in mass although individuals preferred their studies. They are the ones who came after the Mutakallimūn from amongst the Muslims in the Muslims countries, they are the Muslim philosophers. It seems that what allowed them to exist amongst Muslims is that knowledge of philosophical thoughts and the books of philosophy which made these studies attractive to the people in that age. It seems what allowed these people to exist amongst the Muslims is that during that age the study of the philosophical thoughts and books of philosophy gained interest among the people. So some people took on the responsibility of widening the study of such thoughts. Thus, they studied these thoughts in a deep and extensive way, a study that was comprehensive and unrestricted. They followed every line (of thought) in its entirety. They studied an appropriate amount of philosophy to qualify themselves to think philosophically and produce philosophical output. It was due to these deep and extensive studies in philosophy, especially a specific type of Greek philosophy that led to the presence of philosophers amongst Muslim. The first known Muslim philosopher was Ya'qub al Kindi (d.260 H). After him the Muslim philosophers emerged one after another. Thus, the philosophers did not emerge except after the presence of the Mutakallimūn and after the methodology of those philosophers had become prevalent and had become the subject of study, debate and polemics. In the eyes of many Mutakallimūn and Ulama, philosophy became intolerable. Before that, there were no philosophers amongst Muslims. Hence, there were mutakallamin and philosophers amongst the Ulama in the Muslim lands. However, there is a difference between Mutakallimūn and the philosophers. The Mutakallimūn were well versed with some philosophical thoughts. As for the philosophers, they were scholars of philosophy. That is why the philosophers used to look upon the Mutakalimun as ignorant. The philosophers thought the Mutakallimūn were people of sophistry and polemics. And they, that is, the philosophers were the one who rationally studied the sound philosophical issues.

所有的穆塔卡里姆（Mutakallimūn）和哲学家都研习神学，尽管穆塔卡里姆的方法与哲学家的方法存在差异。这种差异可以概括如下：

All the Mutakallimūn and philosophers studied theology, although there is a difference between the method of the Mutakallimūn and that of the philosophers. The difference can be summarised as follows:

1. 穆太卡里穆纳（Mutakallimūn，伊斯兰教义学家）坚信伊玛尼（imān，信仰）的各项原则，承认它们是真理并信奉之。随后，他们运用理性证据来论证这些原则，即以逻辑证明从理性上加以确立。他们借助逻辑推理的方式进行理性研究，以此作为证明其信仰的手段，因为他们本已信奉伊斯兰教的基本原则，于是才构建论证与证明，来确立他们所信仰的内容。

1. The Mutakallimūn had conviction in the principles of imān and they acknowledged them to be the truth and believed in them. Then they used their rational evidences to prove them. So they proved them rationally with logical proofs. They used the rational study through the style of logic as a means to prove their beliefs, because they already believed in the basic principles of Islam and they came to form arguments and proofs to establish what they believed in.

2. 穆タ卡alliminūn（辩论神学家）的研究仅限于与捍卫其信条以及驳斥对手论证相关的问题。这些对手既包括穆斯林——他们与穆尔太齐赖派、穆尔吉亚派、什叶派、哈瓦利吉派等人对教义的理解不同——也包括非穆斯林，如基督徒、犹太教徒、拜火教徒等。不过，他们讨论中最突出的方面，是用来回应穆斯林中的辩论神学家和哲学家。 3. 穆タ卡alliminūn的研究属于伊斯兰学术范畴。尽管他们之间存在分歧和矛盾，他们的观点仍被视为伊斯兰的观点。任何穆斯林若相信其中某一观点，即被视为对某一伊斯兰观点持有信念；他所确信的内容，也就被视为伊斯兰的信条。

2. The studies of the Mutakallimūn were restricted to issues relating to the defence of their creed and refutation of the arguments of their opponents whether they were Muslims - they disagreed with the understanding of the Mu'tazila, murji'a, Shi'a, khawarij and others - or whether they were non-muslims such as the Christians, Jews, Magians and others, although the most prominent aspect of their discussions was for the purpose of responding to the Mutakallimūn and philosophers amongst the Muslims. 3. The studies of the Mutakallimūn were Islamic and they, despite their differences and contradiction, are considered as Islamic opinions. Any Muslim who is convinced of one of their opinions is considered to have had conviction in an Islamic opinion. And whatever he was convinced of was considered as the Islamic creed.

这是经学家（Mutakallimūn）的方法，人们也是这样看待它的。至于哲学家的方法，可以概括如下：

This is the methodology of the Mutakallimūn and this is how it is considered. As for the methodology of the philosophers, it can be summarised as follows:

1. 哲学家们为研究而研究问题。他们的研究方法及其根基，是依据可证明的论证来考察问题。他们的神学观，是关于绝对存在及其本质所必然导出之事的观点。他们的研究始于探寻能够导向可证明论证的途径，然后逐步推进，直至得出结论，无论结论为何，并对其确信。这便是哲学的目标与基础。他们的讨论纯粹属于哲学范畴，就讨论本身而言与伊斯兰无关，尽管人们可以看到它在某些问题上与伊斯兰有所关联。他们在讨论中常常承认一些属于文本层面的事物，而对这些事物无法建立理性证明来确定其正确或谬误，例如复活以及肉身复活等问题。他们还常常采纳希腊哲学中的某些观点，并据此对事物作出判断，尽管其中掺杂着他们伊斯兰信仰（'aqīdah，信条）的影响。他们也常常试图调和哲学中的某些问题与伊斯兰的问题；然而这是他们作为穆斯林、受伊斯兰影响的附加结果，而非以伊斯兰为根基的理智影响，不像穆塔卡利米家（Mutakallimūn）那样。相反，这种影响在很大程度上类似于基督教对基督教哲学家的影响，以及犹太教对犹太哲学家的影响，因为根深蒂固的观念会极大地影响研究，或对研究产生某种作用。至于他们所依据的基础，则是围绕绝对存在（al-wujud al-mutlaq）及其本质所必然导出之物。他们真正的影响来源是希腊哲学。他们的思维方式是按照希腊哲学塑造而成的。因此，他们是在深谙希腊哲学之后，才撰写哲学思想的著作。 伊斯兰教与他们的哲学之间并无任何关联。

1. The philosophers studied the issues for the sake of research. Their method of study and its fundamentals are the study of issues as indicated by the demonstrable proof. And their view of theology was the view concerning the Absolute Being and whatever it’s Essence necessitated. They begin their study by searching for what would lead to demonstratable proof; proceeding step by step until they arrive at the result whatever it may be and have conviction in it. This is the aim and the basis of philosophy. Their discussions are purely philosophical having no relationship to Islam in terms of the discussion even though one may witness that it has a connection to some subjects. They would frequently admit textual things in their discussions for which a rational proof cannot be established to prove it correctness or invalidity, subjects such as the Resurrection and the bodily Ressurection. And often they would take up certain ideas from the Greek philosophy issuing judgments on matters based on them albeit with the influence of their Islamic ‘aqīdah (creed) in them. And often they would attempt to reconcile certain issues of philosophy with Islamic issues; however this was an addition to, and a result of them being Muslims effected by Islam. But the effect was not an intellectual one where they made Islam as the basis as was the case with the Mutakallimūn. Rather, the effect is akin to a great extent to the effect of Christianity on the Christian philosophers, and the effect of Judaism on the Jewish philosophers, since the deep rooted concepts will greatly affect the study or have some effect on it. As for the basis on which they proceeded, it is around the Absolute Being (al-wujud al-mutlaq) and what it necessitated for its Essence. Their true influence was the Greek philosophy. Their mentality had been formulated according to Greek philosophy. So they wrote about the thoughts of philosopy after gaining maturity in the Greek philosophy. There was no relationship between Islam and their pholoshophy.

2. 穆斯林哲学家并非为捍卫伊斯兰教而站出来。他们只是为了确定事实并为之提供论证。即便他们可能受到伊斯兰教的影响，他们也没有去转述反对的观点并加以驳斥以维护伊斯兰教。因此，理性研究是其基础和主题，除此之外，他们的研究中并无其他内容。

2. The Muslim philosophers did not stand in defence of Islam. They only stood to determine facts and furnish proofs for them. Nor did they enter into reporting opposing views and refuting them in Islam's defence even though they may have been influenced by Islam. Therefore, rational study was the basis and the subject matter and nothing apart from these was present in their study.

3. 穆斯林哲学家的研究属于非伊斯兰的学问。它们实际上纯粹是哲学性的讨论，与伊斯兰教毫无关系，其讨论中也没有伊斯兰的位置。它们不被视为伊斯兰的观点，也不属于伊斯兰文化的组成部分。

3. The studies of the Muslim philosophers are non-islamic studies. Rather they are purely philosophical discussions and have no relationship to Islam. It has no place for Islam in its discussion. They are not considered Islamic opinions and they are not part of the Islamic culture.

这就是拟论者（mutakallimun）的方法论与穆斯林哲学家的方法论之间的差异。而穆斯林哲学家的现实状况是：把阿尔-肯迪、阿尔-法拉比、伊本·西那等穆斯林哲学家所钻研的哲学称为伊斯兰哲学，既是不公，也与现实相悖，更是对伊斯兰的捏造。因为这种哲学与伊斯兰毫无关联，在根基上和许多细节上都与伊斯兰完全相悖。 就根基而言，这种哲学讨论的是宇宙之外的事物，即绝对存在（al-wujud al-mutlaq），这与伊斯兰相反，伊斯兰讨论的是宇宙之内的事物以及只能被感知的事物。它禁止讨论真主的本体以及宇宙之外的事物，命令穆斯林完全顺从，止步于信仰所要求的界限，不再深入，也不允许理智去尝试探讨。 就细节而言，这种哲学中有许多论断，伊斯兰视之为信仰不端（kufr）。有的论断认为世界是永恒先在的（qadm al-'alam），是永久存在的（azali）；有的论断断言天堂的快乐是精神性的，而非肉体性的；还有的论断坚持真主对细节事物一无所知，诸如此类的观点，在伊斯兰看来无疑明显构成了不信（kufr）。

This is the difference betwen the methodology of the mutakallimun and the methodology of the Muslim philosophers. And this is the reality of the Muslim philosophers. It is injustice, contradiction of the reality and fabrication of Islam to call the philosophy which the likes of al- Kindi, al-Farabi, Ibn Sina and others from the Muslim philosophers were preoccupied with, as Islamic philosophy. This is because it has no connection to Islam; rather it totally contradicts Islam whether in terms of the basis or in terms of many of its details. As for the contradiction it terms of the basis, this philosophy discusses that which is beyond the universe, that is, regarding the Absolute existence (al-wujud al-mutlaq) which is contrary to Islam which discusses what is in the universe and things that can be sensed only. It prohibits discussion about the essence of Allah  and that which is beyond the universe. It orders the Muslim to submit to it totally and stop at the limit of what imān enjoins without going further and without allowing the mind to attempt to discuss it. As for the details, there are many discussions in this philosophy which Islam considers as disbelief (kufr). Ther are discussions which hold the world to be eternally pre existent (qadm al-'alam) and that it is eternal (azali). And there are discussions which assert that the pleasure of Paradise is spiritual and not corporeal. And discussions which mantain that Allah  is ignorant of detailed aspects and other such notions which definitely manifest kufr in the view of Islam.

既然这一哲学存在如此明显的矛盾，又怎能声称它是伊斯兰的呢？除此之外，伊斯兰教中根本不存在哲学，因为它将理性的讨论限制在可感知的事物之内，并禁止心智去探讨宇宙之外的事物。这使其全部论述都远离哲学，遵循着一种与哲学不同的方法。伊斯兰教中没有留下任何允许开展哲学研究的余地。因此，并不存在所谓的"伊斯兰哲学"。在伊斯兰教中，只有对《古兰经》和先知的逊奈（圣训）的研究。无论就信仰（'aqīdah）还是就教律（ahkam）而言，无论是命令（amr）、禁止（nahi）还是陈述信息，它们都是伊斯兰教唯一的根基。 [ikhbar]

How can it be claimed that this philosophy is Islamic given this clear contradiction? In adition to the fact that there is abolutely no philosophy in Islam because it restricts the rational discussion to the sensible objects and prohibits the mind from discussing that what is beyond the universe, which makes all its discussions remote from philosophy, following a method different to it. There is no possibility given in it that there should be any philosophical studies. That is why there is nothing called as Islamic philosophy. In Islam there is the study of the Qur’ān and the prophetic Sunnah. They are the only basis of Islam in terms of the ‘aqīdah (creed) and rules [ahkam], whether in terms of an order [amr], prohibition [nahi] or information [ikhbar]