穆斯林以毫无疑虑的信仰相信伊斯兰。他们的信仰如此坚定,以至于不会产生任何表明怀疑的疑问。他们讨论《古兰经》的经文时,也只是为了领会其中思想的真实含义,而不去追究由此可能推导出的各种假设,也不去探究从中可以演绎出的逻辑结论。他们走向世界,将伊斯兰的宣教(Da'wah)传给所有人,为其事业而战,开辟城市,各民族便接受了他们所带来的信仰。

The Muslims believed in Islam with an imān that was free of doubt. Their belief was so strong that it did not result in any questions that would indicate skepticism. Nor did they discuss the ayāt of the Qur’ān except in a manner that would enable them to comprehend the reality of the thought therein. They did not inquire into the suppositions that might be drawn from it nor the logical conclusions that may be deduced from it. They went to the world, carrying this Islamic Da’wah to all the people, fighting in its path, opening the cities, and the nations embraced what they carried.

整个第一个伊斯兰历世纪里,伊斯兰的宣教(Da'wah)洪流冲破一切阻碍,伊斯兰的思想以穆斯林所领受的样子传授给民众:理解透彻,信仰坚定,并且有着令人惊叹的卓越觉悟。然而,宣教在被征服的土地上推进,使之与尚未皈依伊斯兰的其他宗教信徒,以及(部分)已进入伊斯兰领域的人们,发生了思想上的交锋。这场思想交锋十分激烈。其他宗教的信徒熟悉某些哲学思想,并持有从各自宗教中得来的某些观点,因此他们就信仰教义要点('aqa'id)与穆斯林展开怀疑与辩论,因为宣教的根基建立在'aqidah(信仰)及与之相关的思想之上。于是,穆斯林真诚地希望(其取得成功)

The whole of the first century Hijri elapsed with the current of the Islamic Da’wah overwhelming everything that stood in its way; the Islamic thoughts were being given to the people as they had been received by the Muslims: with a brilliant understanding, a definitive faith and a surprisingly splendid awareness. Yet, the carrying of the Da’wah in the opened (conquered) lands led to an intellectual collision with the people of other religions who had not yet embraced Islam as well as (some of) those who had entered its domain. This intellectual collision was strenuous. The people of other religions were acquainted with some philosophical thoughts and had certain viewpoints which they got from their religions and so they used to stir skepticism and debate with the Muslims over creedal points [aqa’id], because the basis of the Da’wah is built upon the ‘aqīdah and the thoughts associated with it. So the Muslims sincerely wished well for (the success)

……伊斯兰宣教（Da'wah），并与之辩论以反驳他们。这使许多人开始学习一些哲学思想，以便将其作为武器来对付对手。此外，除了他们在传扬宣教和驳斥对手论点时的诚心之外，他们学习哲学一事也有其正当性，并且他们因两个因素而有动力去学习。

of the Islamic Daw’ah and argued with them in order to counter them. This led many of them to learn some philosophical thoughts in order to use these as a weapon against their adversaries. Moreover apart from their sincerity in carrying the Da’wah and the refutal of their adversaries’ arguments, this learning (of the philosophies) was jusitified to them and they were motivated towards it due to two factors:

首先:《古兰经》除了号召确立独一主(tawḥīd)和先知职分之外,还论及当时在先知ﷺ时代广泛流行的主要教派和宗教;它反驳了这些教派,驳斥了它们的主张。它处理了一切形式的以物配主(shirk),并加以驳斥。在以物配主者之中,有人崇拜星辰,并以之为与安拉الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ并列的伙伴;《古兰经》驳斥了他们的信仰。他们中有人主张崇拜偶像,并把偶像当作安拉الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ的同伴;《古兰经》驳斥了这种崇拜。他们中有人完全否认先知职分;《古兰经》驳斥了他们的信仰。他们中有人否认穆罕默德ﷺ的先知身份,《古兰经》驳斥了这种信仰。他们中有人否认复活和后世的清算;《古兰经》驳斥了他们的信仰。他们中有人将尔萨عليه السلام神化,或把他说成是安拉الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ的儿子;《古兰经》驳斥了这一信仰;而且《古兰经》并不满足于此,还命令使者ﷺ与他们进行辩论。

Firstly: the Noble Qur’ān, besides its call for tauhīd (monotheism) and prophethood, tackled the more prominent sects and religions which were widespread at the time of the Prophet صلى الله عليه وسلم; it countered them and refuted their advocacies. It dealt with shirk, in all its forms, and refuted it. There were amongst the mushrikīn those who deified the planets and took them as associates to Allah الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ; the Qur’ān refuted their belief. Some of them advocated the worship of idols and made them into partners of Allah الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ; it refuted this adovation. Some of them denied prophethood altogether; the Qur’ān refuted their belief; some of them denied the prophethood of Muhammad صلى الله عليه وسلم and it refuted this belief. Some of them denied the ressurection and the accounting on that day; the Qur’ān refuted their belief. Some of them deified Isa عليه السلام, or made him into the son of Allah الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ; the Qur’ān refuted this belief; and the Qur’ān did not suffice with this: it ordered the Messenger صلى الله عليه وسلم to engage in debate with them:

再者，先知穆罕默德ﷺ的一生，是与所有的异教徒、多神教徒以及有经人进行思想斗争的一生。关于他在麦加和麦地那的许多事迹都有记载：他与异教徒个别交谈，与群体和代表团辩论。这种思想斗争在《古兰经》的经文和使者ﷺ的圣训及其行为中都十分突出，穆斯林们读到并听到了这些事迹，因此他们与其他宗教的信徒展开讨论、进行思想交锋和辩论，是自然而然的事。他们宗教的教法也要求进行这样的讨论；伊斯兰召唤的本质——即它与异教之间的冲突——若没有这种在它与异教之间发生的斗争、讨论和辩论，便无法推进。至于这种斗争为何具有理性的特征，是因为《古兰经》本身就号召运用理智，并引用理性的论证和感官的证据。对其信仰的号召完全建立在理智之上，而非仅凭经文的依据。因此，辩论与斗争必然带有理性的特质，并以此为标志。

Further, the life of the Prophet صلى الله عليه وسلم had been a life of intellectual struggle with all of the kuffār, the mushrikīn and the People of the Book. Many incidents were reported about him in Makkah and Madinah in which he discussed with the kuffār and debated with them as individuals, groups, and delegations. This intellectual struggle which is prominent in the ayāt of the Qur’ān and in the ahādith of the Messenger صلى الله عليه وسلم and in his conduct was read and heard by the Muslims; it was thus only natural for them to discuss with the people of other religions and to engage with them in an intellectual struggle and to debate with them. The ahkām of their religion call for such discussion; the nature of the Islamic Call - its clash with kufr - will not progress without the occurrence of such struggle, discussion and argumentation, between it and kufr. As for that what makes this struggle adopt an intellectual character, the Qur’ān itself calls for the use of the intellect, and it cites intellectual proof and sensory evidence. The call to its ‘aqīdah is based exclusively on the mind, not on textual evidence. Thus it was inevitable for the debate and the struggle to take an intellectual character and to be marked by the same.

其次:某些哲学和神学问题从聂斯托利派基督徒及其同类那里流传到穆斯林之中,亚里士多德的逻辑学也为穆斯林所知;一些人已经熟悉了某些哲学书籍。许多书籍先从希腊文译成叙利亚文,再译成阿拉伯文;后来,又从希腊文直接译成阿拉伯文。这助长了哲学思想的传播。其他一些宗教,特别是犹太教和基督教,曾把希腊哲学当作武器,并将其带入穆斯林的土地。所有这些都催生了哲学思想,促使穆斯林去研究它们。

Secondly: Certain philosophical and theologial issues had leaked to the Muslims from the Nestorian Christians and their like, and the logic of Aristotle was known amongst the Muslims; some had become familiar with certain books of philosophy. Many books were translated from Greek into Syriac and then into Arabic; later, translation was made from Greek (directly) into Arabic. This supported the presence of philosophical thoughts. Some other religions, specifically Judiasm and Christianity, had resorted to Greek philosophy as a weapon and brought it into the (Muslim) lands. All of this generated philosophical thoughts, pushing the Muslims to study them.

因此,这两个因素——伊斯兰教关于辩论的规定与观念,以及哲学思想的存在——促使穆斯林转向理性讨论与哲学思考,学习这些思想并将其作为辩论与争论的材料,而且他们为此作了辩护。然而,这一切并非全面的哲学研究,而只是为驳斥基督教徒和犹太教徒而对(部分)哲学思想所作的研究,因为穆斯林若不先熟悉希腊哲学家的论证,尤其是与逻辑学和神学相关的论证,便不可能进行反驳。正因如此,他们被敦促去研究外来教派及其论证与证据。于是,穆斯林的土地成为了各种观点与各种宗教得以呈现和辩论的场域。毫无疑问,辩论会激发思索与思考,并产生诸多引发沉思的问题,促使每个群体采纳其认为最正确的观点。这种辩论与思考对于一批人的出现起到了极大的作用,他们在探究、论证和讨论中开辟了一条新的道路或方法。他们所学的哲学思想对其论证方法以及某些观点产生了深刻影响。结果,“凯拉姆学”(‘Ilm al-Kalām,伊斯兰经院神学)得以发展,成为一门专门的学科,伊斯兰地区的穆斯林中也出现了“穆塔卡里敏”(Mutakallimīn,经院神学家)这一群体。

和

And

和

And

和

And

和

And

和

And

因此，《古兰经》关于安拉的能力、知识和意志的论述，是建立在人的本性（فطرة）与理智之上的。这种论述与人的本性相契合，能在每个人心中引发倾听与回应的感受；即便是无神论者，也能理解它并为之折服。这是一种适合每一个人的论述方式，不因精英与普通人而有所区别，也不因受过教育与未受教育而有所不同。

Thus the approach of the Qur’ān with regards to Allah’s capability, knowledge, and will tread on the basis of the fitrah and the intellect. This approach is consistent with the fitrah and it generates a feeling within every human being to listen and respond to it; even an atheist comprehends it and succumbs to it. It is an approach that suits every human being, with no distinction between the elite and the commoner or between the educated and the uneducated.

此外,经文中的"mutashabih ayāt"(隐微经文)含有模糊之处,读者难以明确其义。它们多以概括的形式出现,缺乏细节;以对事物的泛泛描述或对实情的叙述呈现,其中明显缺少探究、细致考察与论证。因此,读者既不会排斥它们,也无法真正理解其所指的实情,只能停留在经文字面的含义之上。所以,对待这类经文的自然态度是接受,正如对待任何实情的描述和任何事实的确认一样,不去追究其效力因,也不去寻求论证。因此,某些经文描绘了人的行为的一个方面,从而表明了被迫;另一些经文则描绘了其他方面,从而表明了自由选择。安拉الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ说:

Moreover, the mutashabih ayāt wherein is ambiguity and in which there is lack of clarity for the reader, have come in the general form, without detail; they have come in the form of a general description of things or a reporting of realities wherein a lack of inquiry, thoroughness and substantiation is apparent. So the reader does not reject them nor does he truly comprehend the realities denoted by them beyond the denotations of the words therein. Therefore, the natural stance with regards to them is one of acceptance as is the case towards the depiction of any reality and the verification of any fact, without seeking effective causes or substantiation. Thus, certain ayāt depict one facet of the actions of man and in so doing indicate compulsion; other ayāt depict other facets and in so doing indicate free choice. Allah الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ says,

和

And

On the other hand, He الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ also says,

On the other hand, He الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ also says,

其他经文确立了真主 سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ 有脸和手，称祂为天地之光，并说明真主 سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ 在天上。

Other ayāt establish for Allah الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ a face and a hand and speak of Him as the Light of the Heavens and the Earth and state that He الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ is in the Heavens:

其他经文也确立了他的独特地位：

Other ayāt establish his uniqueness:

因此,《古兰经》中出现了一些表面上看似矛盾的经文,《古兰经》称这类经文为“穆塔沙比哈特”(多义经文)。安拉 سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ 说:

Thus certain ayāt came in the Qur’ān which are seemingly contradictory. The Qur’ān called such ayāt mutashabihāt (polysemous). Allah الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ says,

当这些经文降下时,使者ﷺ将它们传达给众人,穆斯林们将其死记硬背,并未引发任何讨论或争论。他们在这些经文中没有看到需要调和的矛盾。他们依据每节经文所描述或确证的方面去理解。因此,这些经文在实际意义上和其本身都是和谐一致的。他们信仰它们,信任它们,并以一种概括性的方式理解它们,并满足于这种理解;他们将其视为对实际情况的描述或对事实的陈述。许多有智慧的人不喜欢讨论不明确经文(mutashabihāt)的细节,也不喜欢对此进行争辩。他们认为,这样的讨论对伊斯兰教没有益处。人们在能够理解的范围内所达到的概括性理解,将使对细节和详述的讨论变得不必要。因此,穆斯林们在使者ﷺ的时代以及在其后的人们中,都遵循这一《古兰经》的进路来理解其经文,并依此接受其经文,直至希吉来历第一个世纪全部过去。

When these ayāt were revealed, the Messenger صلى الله عليه وسلم conveyed them to the people and the Muslims memorised them by rote, they did not generate any discussion or debate. They did not see in these ayāt any contradictions that required reconcilation. They understood every ayah with reference to the aspect it came to describe or verify. Thus the ayāt were harmonious in reality and in their selves. They believed in them, trusted them and understood them in a general manner, and they sufficed themselves with this understanding; they regarded them as a description of reality or a reporting of facts. Many amogst the wise did not like the discussion concerning the details of the mutashabihāt or the debate thereof. They thought that such discussion was of no benefit to Islam. The general understanding, to the extent one understands, would render the discussion of the details and elaborations unnecessary. Thus the Muslims comprehended the approach of the Qur’ān and received its ayāt upon this approach throughout the era of the Messenger صلى الله عليه وسلم and so did those who came after them until the entire first century Hijri had elapsed.

至于他们（指这些学者）与哲学家方法论的区别，哲学家们只依赖三段论；他们把三段论发展成一种逻辑形式，由小前提、大前提和结论构成。他们使用诸如“本质”“偶性”之类的术语和行话；他们提出了各种理智问题，并以逻辑为基础来构建这些问题，而不是以感官知觉或实际事实为基础。

As for their difference from the methodology of the philosophers, the philosophers depended solely on syllogisms; they evolved syllogisms in a logical form from a minor and major premise and a conclusion. They used terminology and jargon such as ‘essence’ and ‘accident’ and the like; they initiated intellectual problems which they built on the basis of logic, not on the basis of sense-perception or the reality.

Mutakallimūn 所采用的探究方法与此不同。他们信仰安拉 الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ，信仰祂的使者 صلى الله عليه وسلم，以及使者 صلى الله عليه وسلم 所带来的一切；他们的意图是通过逻辑推理来证明这些信仰。随后，他们开始探究世界的新生性，并为事物的新生性寻求证据。他们在此基础上不断展开，于是新的问题相继出现在他们面前；他们把这些问题及其派生问题的讨论推进到逻辑的尽头。因此，他们并不是像前人那样为了理解经文而探讨经文，也不是为了《古兰经》的目的而探讨经文，而是先信仰那些经文，然后为自己从中理解的内容寻找证据。这是探究的一个方面。另一方面涉及经文中的隐微经文（ayāt mutashabihāt）。Mutakallimūn 并不满足于笼统地信仰这些经文而不作细节上的了解。他们搜集表面上相互矛盾的经文，例如关于强制与自由意志的经文，以及可能暗示安拉道成肉身的经文，并对它们反复钻研，其自负程度无人能及。他们的思辨使他们对每一个问题都形成了一个见解。一旦形成了见解，他们就去处理那些表面上似乎与其观点相悖的经文，并对其作出曲解。以符合其见解的方式对经义进行解释（ta’wīl），正是 Mutakallimūn 的主要特征。例如，如果他们的探究使他们得出结论：安拉过于崇高，不能以方位和方向来描述，那么他们就会曲解安拉 الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ 在宝座上升起（al-istiwā alā‘l-‘arsh）这一经文。 如果他们的讨论使他们得出这样的结论:否定真主的方向属性,就意味着人们的眼睛无法看见祂 الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ,那么他们就扭曲了关于人们得见真主 الله سُبْحَانَهُۥ وَتَعَالَىٰ 的圣训的解释。因此,按照自己的观点来解释经义,是宗教学家(Mutakallimīn)的特点之一,也是他们与前代人(salaf)的主要区别。