Fiqh ni mojawapo ya taaluma muhimu zaidi za Kiislamu zenye athari kubwa zaidi katika jamii. Ni mojawapo ya matawi muhimu zaidi ya utamaduni wa Kiislamu. Hiyo ni kwa sababu utamaduni wa Kiislamu ni Qur’ani na Sunnah, pamoja na kila kitu kinachotegemewa na kuwekwa ili kuelewa Qur’ani na Sunnah. Ingawa utamaduni wa Kiislamu unajumuisha elimu ya lugha ya Kiarabu, hadithi na tafsiri, jambo lililo mashuhuri zaidi linalotokana nao ni mawazo yanayohusu mtazamo kuhusu maisha na suluhisho zinazoshughulikia matatizo ya maisha. Kwa maneno mengine, mawazo hayo yanajitokeza katika itikadi (‘aqaid) na hukumu za Sharī’ah, kwa kuwa ni utamaduni wa vitendo uliokubaliwa ili kukabiliana na matatizo ya maisha, ambao, katika hali nyingi, una mawazo kuhusu itikadi na suluhisho, yaani hukumu. Fiqh si chochote zaidi ya elimu ya hukumu hizi.

Fiqh is one of the most important Islamic disciplines having the greatest effect on society. It is one of the most important branches of the Islamic culture. That is because the Islamic culture is the Qur’ān and Sunnah and whatever is relied upon and laid down in order to understand the Qur’ān and Sunnah. Even though the Islamic culture includes the sciences of the Arabic language, hadīth and tafsīr, the most prominent thing that appears from it are the thoughts which relate to the viewpoint about life and the solutions which treat the problems of life. In other words, it appears in the beliefs (‘aqaid) and Sharī’ah rules because they are a practical culture adopted to face lifes problems which, in most cases, contains thoughts about beliefs and solutions i.e, the rules. Fiqh is nothing other than the knowledge of these rules.

Utamaduni wa Kiislamu na kujifunza hukumu za Sharīʿah kulianza tangu wakati Mtume ﷺ alipotumwa. Mtume ﷺ ndiye alikuwa marejeo pekee ya hukumu za Sharīʿah kwa sababu alitumwa kuwafundisha watu dini ya Allah. Alisema ﷺ:

The Islamic culture and the learning of Sharī’ah rules began from the time the Messenger  was sent. The Messenger  was the only reference point for the Sharī’ah rules because he was sent to teach people Allah’s deen. He  said:

Alisema:

He  said:

Isipokuwa Mtume, hakuna Muislamu mwenye haki ya kutoa kwa kujitegemea maoni yake kuhusu msimamo au hukumu yoyote. Kwa kuwa Mtume ﷺ alikuwepo miongoni mwao, kumrejea yeye kuhusu chochote walichokutana nacho ilikuwa rahisi. Hata hivyo, haikuruhusiwa kwa yeyote kati yao kutoa maoni yake binafsi kuhusu tukio lolote. Ndiyo maana, walipokutana na tukio, au pale mzozo ulipotokea, au mmoja wao alipopata wazo, walimrejea Mtume ﷺ. Naye ﷺ alitoa maoni, akasuluhisha migogoro yao na kujibu maswali yao, wakati mwingine kwa aya na wakati mwingine kwa hadithi. Kuhusu yale yaliyopokelewa, kwamba baadhi ya Masahaba walifanya ijtihadi wakati wa Mtume ﷺ na kutoa hukumu kwa kutumia ijtihadi yao wenyewe katika mizozo fulani, au kwamba walitoa hukumu za matukio fulani kwa ijtihadi yao, hilo halifanyi ijtihadi hizo kuwa chanzo cha hukumu za Sharia. Badala yake, ijtihadi hizo ni ufahamu wa Sharia kulingana na amri ya Mtume ﷺ. Ni utekelezaji wa Sharia, ukitegemea Qur'an na Sunnah kama zilivyofahamiwa na wale mujtahidina. Hili linadhihirishwa na hali ambayo ijtihadi hizi zilifanyika. Imepokelewa kwamba Mtume ﷺ alimtuma Ali bin Abi Talib kwenda Yemen kama qadhi. Akamwambia:

With the exception of the Messenger  no Muslim has the right to independently put forward an opinion regarding any viewpoint or ruling. Due to the Messenger’s  presence among them referring to him regarding anything they came across was easy, It was still not permitted for any of them to give his personal opinion regarding any event. That is why, when they came across an event or a dispute arose or one of them had an idea they would refer to the Messenger . And he  would give an opinion, settle their disputes and answer their questions, sometimes with an ayah and sometimes with a hadīth. As for what has been reported that certain Sahabah exercised Ijtihād in the time of the Messenger  and pronounced judgements according to their own Ijtihād in certain disputes or that they deduced the rule regarding certain events through their own Ijtihād. This does not make these Ijtihāds a source for Sharī’ah rules. Rather they constitute an understanding of the Sharī’ah in accordance with the order of the Messenger . They constitute the application of the Sharī’ah, relying on the Qur’ān and Sunnah as understood by those mujtahidin. This is demonstrated by the circumstance in which these Ijtihāds took place. It has been reported that the Prophet  sent ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib  to Yemen as a judge. He  told him:

Imepokelewa kwamba Mtume ﷺ alimtuma Mu’adh bin Jabal Yemen, na akamwambia:

It has been reported that the Prophet  sent Mu’az ibn Jabal to Yemen and he  said to him:

Imepokewa kwamba baadhi ya watu walikuwa wakigombania kibanda baina yao, basi Hudhayfa alitumwa ili awaamue baina yao. Bukhari na Muslim wameripoti kwa mapokezi ya ‘Amr bin al-‘Aas kwamba alimsikia Nabii ﷺ akisema:

It is reported that some people were disputing over a hut between themselves so Hudhayfa was sent to judge between them. Bukhari & Muslim report on the authority of ‘Amr bin al-‘Aas that he heard the prophet  say:

Ripoti hizi zote na mifano mingine kama hiyo zinaonyesha kwamba Ijtihādat ambazo Waislamu walizifanya wakati wa Mtume ﷺ zilikuwa kulingana na amri yake. Kwa hiyo, yeye ndiye chanzo chao. Hivyo, wakati wa Mtume ﷺ ulikuwa ni wakati ambao chanzo cha utamaduni wote wa Kiislamu kilikuwepo. Hali hiyo iliendelea tangu alipotumwa hadi kifo chake, katika kipindi kisichozidi miaka ishirini na miwili na miezi michache, ambacho ndani yake Qur’ani yote iliteremshwa na Sunnah tukufu ilikamilika. Hizi ndizo nyaraka pekee zinazochukuliwa kuwa chanzo cha mawazo, kanuni na utamaduni katika Uislamu.

All of these reports and other such examples indicate that the Ijtihādat that the Muslims performed during the days of the Messenger  were in accordance with his  order. Therefore, he was their source. Thus, the time of the Messenger  was a time in which the source of the entire Islamic culture existed. That continued from the time he was sent until his death, in a period of time not exceeding twenty two years and a few months in which the whole Qur’ān was revealed and the sublime Sunnah was completed. These are the only texts considered as the source of thoughts, rules and culture in Islam.

Kwa kifo cha Mtume ﷺ katika mwaka wa kumi na moja wa Hijra kilianza zama za Sahaba. Ni zama za tafsiri na kufunguliwa kwa milango ya istinbati (kutoa hukumu kwa njia ya kutoa hoja) kwa masuala ambayo hayakuwa na maandiko (wazi). Masahaba waliona kwamba si maandiko yote ya Qur’ani na Sunnah yalikuwa yameenea sana miongoni mwa watu kiasi cha kwamba yalipatikana kwa kila mtu, kwa sababu maandiko ya Qur’ani yalikuwa yameandikwa katika kurasa maalum zilizohifadhiwa nyumbani kwa Mtume ﷺ na zilizohifadhiwa katika nyumba za baadhi ya Masahaba, na Sunnah ilikuwa bado haijaandikwa. Waliona kwamba maandiko ya Qur’ani na Sunnah yalitoa hukumu kwa matukio na masuala yaliyotokea wakati wa kuteremshwa kwake. Hukumu hazikutolewa kwa matukio na masuala ambayo yalikuwa na uwezekano tu wa kutokea. Mahitaji, matukio na masuala yalitokea miongoni mwa Waislamu ambayo hayakutokea wakati wa Mtume ﷺ, na hakukuwa na maandiko kwa matatizo yaliyojitokeza baadaye yanayoeleza hukumu yake. Vilevile, waliona kwamba si kila Mwislamu alikuwa na sifa za kurejea maandiko ya Qur’ani na Sunnah peke yake na kuelewa hukumu inayoonyeshwa nayo, kwa kuwa watu wengi hawawezi kuyaelewa maandiko isipokuwa kwa msaada wa mtu atakayewafanya waelewe hukumu za Uislamu. Kwa hiyo walitambua kwamba ilikuwa wajibu wao kueneza Qur’ani Tukufu na hadithi za Mtume ﷺ miongoni mwa Waislamu. Hivyo walichukua jukumu la kukusanya Qur’ani, na kutokana na mkusanyiko huo wakatengeneza nakala nyingi walizosambaza miongoni mwa Waislamu, pia walichukua tahadhari kuhakikisha uaminifu wa usimulizi wa Sunnah na imani katika uchunguzi wa wasimulizi. Pia waliona kwamba ilikuwa wajibu wao kuwaonyesha Waislamu ufafanuzi na maelezo muhimu ya maandiko ya Qur’ani na Sunnah. Kisha wakaanza kuwafundisha watu dini, kisha wakaona kwamba wanapaswa kuwapa watu hukumu za kisheria kwa matukio na masuala yaliyowapata ambayo hayakuwa na maandishi (wazi). Hivyo, wakaanza kuchimbua hukumu zilizohitajika kwa masuala yaliyotokea. Kwa sababu ya hili, walijitwika jukumu la dini kwa njia bora iwezekanavyo.

Vivyo hivyo pia walipotofautiana kuhusu suala la sehemu ya pamoja, pale mwanamke alipofariki akimwacha mume, mama, ndugu wa kuzaliwa na mama mmoja tu, na ndugu wa baba na mama wote. ‘Umar alikuwa akimpa mume nusu, mama sehemu ya sita, na ndugu wa kuzaliwa na mama mmoja sehemu ya tatu. Hivyo basi hakubaki chochote kwa ndugu wa baba na mama wote. Akaambiwa: Tuseme baba yetu alikuwa punda. Je, sisi si wa mama mmoja? Basi akabadilisha msimamo wake na akawapa sehemu. Walikuwa wakijitambulisha na maslaha (manufaa) ambayo maandiko yaliteremshwa kwa ajili yake, pale ilipoeleweka kutoka kwenye maandiko. Mfano mwingine ni pale Allah alipo sema:

Similarly when they disagreed about the question of joint share, when a woman died leaving a husband, mother, uterine brothers and full brothers. ‘Umar used to give the husband half, the mother a sixth, and the uterine brothers a third. So nothing remained for the full brothers. It was said to him: Suppose our father was a donkey. Are we not from one mother? So he changed his view and gave them a share. They used to acquaint themselves with the maslaha (benefit) for which the text came, if it was understood from the text. Another example is when Allah  said:

Kwa hiyo Allah (SWT) amewafanya wale ambao nyoyo zao zimeelekezwa kwenye Uislamu kuwa ni matumizi katika vyanzo vya zakat. Imethibitishwa kwamba Nabii ﷺ alikuwa akiwapa watu fedha ambao nyoyo zao zilikuwa zimeelekezwa kwenye Uislamu. Baada ya kufariki kwa Mtume ﷺ, imesimuliwa kuhusu ‘Umar kwamba alikataza malipo kwa wale ambao nyoyo zao zimeelekezwa kwenye Uislamu (al-mu’allaftu qulubuhum). Aliwaambia:

So Allah  made those whose hearts have to be a reconciled (towards Islâm) an expenditure from the sources of zakat. It has been established that the Prophet  used to give money to people whose hearts had been reconciled with Islam. After the death of the Messenger  it is narrated about ‘Umar that he forbade the payment of those whose hearts had been reconciled (al-mu’allaftu qulubuhum). He told them:

Umar alikuwa na maoni kwamba kuwatuliza mioyo kuelekea Uislamu kulikuwepo kwa sababu dola ilikuwa dhaifu, kwa kuwa usemi wa neno 'kuwatuliza mioyo' (ta'leefu al-quluub) unaonyesha hivyo. Kwani, ni lini mtu huwatuliza mioyo isipokuwa pale anapokuwa na haja nao (watu)? Umar alichukua msimamo kwamba haja ya kuwatuliza mioyo ilikoma Uislamu ulipokuwa na nguvu, na bila haja ya kuwatuliza mioyo, 'illah (sababu ya kisheria) haitumiki, na kwa sababu hiyo hukm (hukumu) pia haitumiki.

Umar was of the view that the reconcilings of hearts towards Islam was there because the state was weak because the expression, for the expression ‘reconciling hearts’ (ta’leeful al-qulub) indicates this. For when do you reconcile hearts except when you are in a state of need for them (the people) ? Umar took the opinion that the need to reconcile hearts ended when Islam became strong, without the need to reconcile hearts, the ‘illah (legal cause) does not apply and due to this the hukm also does not apply.

Masahaba walikuwa wakiwauliza watu kuhusu maandiko ya Sharī'ah kwa mambo ambayo hawakuyajua, nao (Allah awe radhi nao) walikuwa wakikusanyika pamoja Hijaz, wakijadili Qur'ān na Sunnah. Iwapo hawakupata hukmu katika Qur'ān na Sunnah kwa jambo walilokuwa wakilitafuta, walikuwa wakiwauliza Waislamu kama kuna yeyote kati yao aliyejua kile ambacho Mjumbe wa Allah ﷺ alikitoa kama hukmu kwa jambo hilo. Ndiyo maana walikuwa wakirejeleana na kukusanyika ili kujadili masuala hayo na kutoa maoni juu yake. Abu Bakr na 'Umar walikuwa wakitoa hukmu kwa kufanya istinbāṭ na kuwarejelea watu. Al-Baghawi ameeleza katika kitabu chake Maṣābīḥ al-Sunnah:

The Sahabah used to investigate and ask the people about the Sharī’ah texts regarding matters they did not know and they (may Allah be pleased with them) used to be all gathered together in the Hijaz, discussing the Qur’ān and Sunnah. If they did not find a hukm in the Qur’ān and Sunnah for the issue they were looking for they would ask Muslims if any of them knew what the Messenger of Allah  passed as a judgement for the issue. That is why they used to refer to each other and get together to discuss the issues and give an opinion for it. Abu Bakr and ‘Umar used to deduce rules and refer to the people. Al-Baghawi has narrated in his Masabih al-Sunnah:

Ikiwa hakupata Sunnah ya Mtume wa Allah ﷺ, alikusanya wakuu wa watu na walio bora miongoni mwao na kushauriana nao. Iwapo walikuwa na makubaliano juu ya jambo fulani, angehukumu kwa hilo. Imepokewa kwamba 'Umar alikuwa akishauriana na Maswahaba licha ya elimu yake ya fiqhi, kiasi kwamba jambo lilipomfikia angesema: Niitieni 'Ali, niitieni Zayd. Alikuwa akishauriana nao na kuhitimisha mzozo kwa kile walichokubaliana. Kutokana na Maswahaba kurejeleana, tofauti za maoni kati yao zilikuwa chache, kwa sababu kila Sahaba alimweleza Sahaba mwenzake mtazamo wake pamoja na dalili alizozitoa. Maoni yao kwa ujumla yalikuwa sahihi na ya kweli, na kila mmoja alimrejelea mwenzake. Na ijapokuwa maoni yao yalitofautiana katika baadhi ya hukumu, tofauti zao zilikuwa chache, na zilikuwa katika ufahamu wao, si katika mbinu ya kufahamu.

If he failed to find a Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah  he gathered the heads of people and the best amongst them and consulted them. If they had a consensus on a matter he would judge with that. It has been reported that ‘Umar used to consult the Sahabah despite his knowledge of fiqh to the extent that when an incident would be refered to him he would say: Call ‘Ali for me, call Zayd. He used to consult them and settle the dispute with whatever they were agreed upon. Due to the Sahabah’s reference to each other differences of opinion between them were rare because each Sahābi expressed to another Sahābi his own perspective and the evidences he educed. Their view on the whole was true and correct and each one referred to the other. And even though their views differed in certain rules but their differences were rare and it was in their understanding and not in the method of understanding.

Wakati ushindi ulipoongezeka na Maswahaba wakatawanyika katika miji mbalimbali, na ikawa vigumu kwao kukutana, kila mara tukio lisilo na maandiko lilipotokea, kila Swahaba alitoa maoni yake mwenyewe bila kuyaeleza kwa wengine wala kurejea kwao, kutokana na ugumu wa kukutana kwani miji ilikuwa mbali mbali, na pia kutokana na haja ya kutoa maoni juu ya tukio lililotokea katika mji ili kutoa hukumu kwa mujibu wake. Katika kila mji wa Kiislamu kulikuwa na Swahaba mmoja au zaidi. Walikuwa kituo cha kurejewa kwa hukumu. Walikuwa wakitoa hukumu zisizo na maandiko na kuchukua jukumu la kufafanua na kueleza maandiko, kama walivyochukua jukumu la kuwafundisha watu Qur'ani na Sunnah. Sunnah bado ilikuwa haijaandikwa, kwa hiyo maoni ya Maswahaba yalitofautiana juu ya tukio moja, na kila mmoja alikuwa na dalili ya maoni aliyoyatoa na aliyoyatumia kutolea hukumu za kisheria. Hata hivyo, maoni hayo yote yalikuwa ni hukumu za Sharia na yalikubalika kwa wote kwani tofauti yao ilikuwa tu katika ufahamu. Kuhusu mbinu yao ya Ijtihadi, ilikuwa ni kuzingatia maandiko ya Qur'ani na Hadithi, kuchunguza maandiko hayo, na kuhakikisha kwamba maslahi yanayotambulika ni yale tu yaliyoonyeshwa na Sharia, pamoja na kufanya kiyas kwa masuala na maslahi. Umoja wa mbinu katika Ijtihadi haukuruhusu tofauti ya ufahamu kuwa na athari yoyote. Kinyume chake, ulikuwa mojawapo ya sababu za kukua na kupanuka kwa fiqhi. Hukumu zao (fatwa) zilikuwa kulingana na matukio na masuala yaliyotokea. Wigo wa tofauti yao haukupanuka wala haukuvuka mipaka ya furu' (matawi ya fiqhi). Tofauti ya Maswahaba katika furu' inatokana na sababu mbili.