Selama berdekad-dekad pada abad ke-18, rejim autonomi berpusat di Galilea di bawah pimpinan Dhaher al-ʿUmar – dengan hubungan perdagangan yang semakin meningkat dengan Perancis dan Britain khususnya – secara berkesan menghubungkan Galilea dengan seluruh pantai Palestin, dari Lubnan hingga Gaza. Oleh itu, tidaklah menghairankan bahawa sepanjang abad ke-19, gabungan kesan catatan perjalanan Eropah (‘pengembaraan di Palestin’), buku panduan, risalah agama, novel, catatan jemaah haji dan peta membuat perbezaan yang jelas antara ‘Palestin’ dan ‘Syria’, serta memperlakukan Palestin bersejarah/Tanah Suci bagi tujuan praktikal sebagai sebuah negara yang berasingan. Lebih-lebih lagi, sepanjang abad ke-19, bagi pengembara dan jemaah Eropah serta Rusia, Palestin dan Tanah Suci adalah sinonim dan boleh saling ditukar ganti. Persinoniman ini tidak merangkumi Syria, yang menjadikan Palestin amat berbeza daripada Syria di utaranya. Pada abad ke-19, kebangkitan semangat keagamaan, digabungkan dengan nasionalisme mesianik yang bersemangat, gerakan ‘kembali kepada Bible’ dan ‘penemuan semula’ Palestin, melanda seluruh Eropah dan Rusia. Lebih-lebih lagi, dalam Orientalisme Eropah dan Rusia abad ke-19, ‘Palestin’ dan ‘Tanah Suci/Terra Sancta/tanah Jesus’ boleh saling ditukar ganti. Persepsi agama-politik tentang Palestin ini, yang sarat dengan kisah-kisah Perjanjian Baru, menjadikan Palestin/Tanah Suci kelihatan amat berbeza daripada Syria dan Lubnan, dan menjadikan Galilea (tempat kelahiran Jesus dan latar banyak kisah Perjanjian Baru) ...

For many decades in the 18th century the Galilee-based autonomous regime of Dhaher al-ʿUmar – with its increased trade links with France and Britain in particular – effectively linked the Galilee with the entire Palestinian coast from Lebanon to Gaza. It is not surprising, therefore, that throughout the 19th century the combined effect of European travelogues (‘travels in Palestine’), guide books, religious treatises, novels, pilgrims’ accounts and maps made a clear distinction between ‘Palestine’ and ‘Syria’ and treated historic Palestine/Holy Land for all practical purposes as a separate country. Moreover, throughout the 19th century for European and Russian travellers and pilgrims Palestine and the Holy Land were synonymous and interchangeable. This synonymy did not include Syria, which made Palestine sharply distinct from Syria to the north. In the 19th century religious revivalism, combined with feverish messianic nationalism, ‘back to the Bible’ movements and ‘rediscovery’ of Palestine, swept across Europe and Russia. Moreover, in European and Russian Orientalisms of the 19th century ‘Palestine’ and the ‘Holy Land/Terra Sancta/the land of Jesus’ were interchangeable. This religio-political perception of Palestine, steeped in the stories of the New Testament, made Palestine/the Holy Land seem sharply distinct from Syria and Lebanon and made the Galilee (the birthplace of Jesus and the scene of many of the stories of the New Testament)

secara inheren dan erat kaitannya dengan Baitul Maqdis, Betlehem, Hebron, Jaffa dan Gaza, lebih daripada hubungan tradisionalnya yang erat dalam Islam dengan wilayah al-Sham yang luas.

inherently and closely linked with Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Hebron, Jaffa and Gaza, more than its traditionally close links under Islam with the vast al-Sham region.

Popularisasi konsep Palestin digambarkan oleh gunung-gunung literatur geografi tentang Palestin yang disenaraikan dalam Bibliotheca geographica Palaestinae tahun 1890 karya Gustav Reinhold Röhricht, seorang sejarawan Jerman tentang Perang Salib. Röhricht memberikan senarai banci terhadap 3515 catatan cetakan dan manuskrip yang didedikasikan kepada literatur Palestin antara tahun 333 M dan 1878 M. Karya tersebut juga memuatkan senarai kronologi peta yang berkaitan dengan Palestin. Tinjauan Röhricht terhadap literatur dan penerbitan Palestin menunjukkan perkara berikut:

The popularisation of the concept of Palestine was illustrated by the mountains of geographical literature on Palestine listed in the 1890 Bibliotheca geographica Palaestinae by Gustav Reinhold Röhricht, a German historian of the Crusades. Röhricht provided a census of 3515 print and manuscript accounts dedicated to Palestine literature between 333 AD and 1878 AD. The work also had a chronological list of maps relating to Palestine. Röhricht’s survey of Palestine literature and publications shows the following:

(a) 333 hingga 1300 M: 177 karya (b) abad ke-14: 97

(a) 333 to 1300 AD: 177 works (b) 14th century: 97

(c) Abad ke-15 – dengan penciptaan mesin cetak–: 279

(c) 15th century – with the invention of the printing press–: 279

(d) Abad ke-16: 333

(d) 16th century: 333

(e) Abad ke-17: 390

(e) 17th century: 390

(f) Abad ke-18: 318

(f ) 18th century: 318

(g) Abad ke-19 (sehingga 1878) – dengan penggantian mesin cetak gaya Gutenberg yang digerakkan dengan tangan oleh mesin cetak berkuasa stim, yang membolehkan pencetakan pada skala industri –: karya 1915. (Shalev 2012: 79)

(g) 19th century (until 1878) – with the replacement of the handoperated Gutenberg-style presses by steam-powered presses which allowed printing on an industrial scale –:1915 works. (Shalev 2012: 79)

Namun, tinjauan yang luar biasa ini jauh daripada menyeluruh. Catatan perjalanan Barat mengenai Palestin pada abad ke-18 dan ke-19 merangkumi ribuan buku, artikel dan bahan lain yang memerincikan kisah perjalanan pengembara dari Eropah, Rusia dan Amerika Utara ke Tanah Suci.

However, this remarkable survey was far from being exhaustive. Western travelogues of Palestine in the 18th and 19th centuries included thousands of books, articles and other materials detailing accounts of the journeys of European, Russian and North American travellers to the Holy Land.

Didorong oleh kapitalisme moden, teknologi percetakan baharu dan alat pengangkutan baharu, banyak catatan perjalanan tentang Palestin memperlakukan negeri itu bukan sebagai tanah sejarah yang hidup dan ingatan bersama rakyat biasa, tetapi lebih sebagai tugu peringatan bagi Kristianisme Barat – sebuah Kristianisme yang sedang mencari identiti baharu di tengah-tengah pertarungan sengit antara rasionalisme saintifik dan skeptisisme, di satu pihak, dan fundamentalisme evangelis literalis, di pihak lain. Secara tipikal, sebuah jurnal Gereja England, The Church Quarterly Review tahun 1891, menggambarkan buku Röhricht sebagai ‘sangat diperlukan’ bagi para pelajar geografi Palestin. Tinjauan Röhricht terhadap literatur Palestin paling mendedahkan berkenaan dua tempoh tertentu:

Fuelled by modern capitalism, new printing technologies and new transport means, many of the travelogues on Palestine treated the country not so much as a land of living histories and shared memories of ordinary people but more of a memorial to Western Christianity – a Christianity in search of a new identity in the midst of the raging struggle between scientific rationalism and scepticism, on the one hand, and literalist evangelist fundamentalism, on the other. Typically, a Church of England journal, The Church Quarterly Review of 1891, described Röhricht’s book as ‘indispensable’ to students of Palestinian geography. Röhricht’s survey of Palestine literature is most revealing with regard to two particular periods:

tempoh Renaisans dan abad ke-19. Kedua-dua tempoh ini menyaksikan dua revolusi teknologi besar di Eropah yang memberi kesan ketara kepada kesusasteraan Palestin: pertama, revolusi percetakan Renaisans, iaitu mesin cetak sejak akhir abad ke-15 yang memperkenalkan era pengedaran terbitan secara besar-besaran; dan kedua, pada abad ke-19, penggantian mesin cetak gaya Gutenberg yang dikendalikan dengan tangan oleh mesin cetak berkuasa stim, yang membolehkan percetakan dan penerbitan dijalankan pada skala industri. Pengeluaran, pengedaran dan penggunaan pengetahuan tentang Palestin/Tanah Suci pada skala industri yang belum pernah berlaku sebelumnya ini dibantu oleh revolusi fotografi pada tahun 1830-an, yang mula menghasilkan beribu-ribu gambar Tanah Suci untuk pasaran Eropah, Amerika dan Rusia.

the Renaissance period and the 19th century. These two periods experienced two major European technological revolutions with considerable impact on the Palestine literature: first, the Renaissance printing revolution press from the late 15th century introduced the era of mass circulation of publications and second, in the 19th century the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press by the steam-powered press allowed printing and publication on an industrial scale. This unprecedented industrial scale of production, circulation and consumption of Palestine/Holy Land knowledge was aided by the photographic revolution of the 1830s which began to produce masses of images of the Holy Land for the European, American and Russian markets.

Beberapa contoh daripada sejumlah besar literatur tentang Palestin, termasuk penerbitan geografi dan "pengembaraan di" Palestin pada abad ke-19, dalam beberapa bahasa utama Eropah, ialah Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (1822) karya John Lewis Burckhardt; Early Travels in Palestine (1848) karya Thomas Wright, yang mengandungi catatan para jemaah awal ke Palestin; A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine: Including an Account of the Geography, History, Antiquities, Inhabitants of these Countries, Part 1 and 2 (1858, 1868) karya Leslie Porter; Syrie, Liban et Palestine: géographie administrative, statistique, descriptive et raisonnée (1896) karya Vital Cuinet; Dritte Wanderung nach Palästina (1859) karya Titus Tobler; dan Bibliographia Geographica Palestinae (1867). John Murray, salah seorang penerbit yang paling penting dan berpengaruh di Britain, menerbitkan A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine karya Porter, yang memperlakukan Palestin sebagai sebuah negara yang berasingan. Buku ini menerangkan Palestin dalam tiga bahagian utama: Bahagian I "Palestin-Jerusalem" dan "Palestin Selatan", yang merangkumi bandar-bandar dari Gaza hingga Jaffa, dan Bahagian 2 dengan dua bahagian:

A few examples of the large amounts of Palestine literature, including geographic publications on and ‘travels in’ Palestine in the 19th century, in several key European languages, include John Lewis Burckhardt’s Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (1822); Thomas Wright’s Early Travels in Palestine (1848), which consists of accounts of the early pilgrims to Palestine, and Leslie Porter’s A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine: Including an Account of the Geography, History, Antiquities, Inhabitants of these Countries, Part 1 and 2 (1858, 1868), Vital Cuinet, Syrie, Liban et Palestine: géographie administrative, statistique, descriptive et raisonnée (1896); Titus Tobler’s Dritte Wanderung nach Palästina (1859); and Bibliographia Geographica Palestinae (1867). John Murray, one of the most important and influential publishers in Britain, produced Porter’s A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine, which treats Palestine as a separate country. This book describes Palestine in three major sections: Part I ‘Palestine-Jerusalem’ and ‘Southern Palestine’, which includes cities from Gaza to Jaffa, and Part 2 with two sections:

(a) ‘Palestin Utara’, yang merangkumi Galilea dan Damsyik, dan (b) ‘Syria Utara’. Dalam cara yang serupa, Geography of Palestine karya Joseph Meen:

(a) ‘Northern Palestine’, which included the Galilee and Damascus, and (b) ‘Northern Syria’. In a similar vein, Joseph Meen’s Geography of Palestine:

Historis dan Deskriptif (1865) dan The Geography of Palestine, or, the Holy Land, Including Phoenicia and Philistia (1856) karya Walter McLeod merupakan contoh tipikal daripada sejumlah besar buku mengenai geografi sejarah Palestin yang diterbitkan di Britain dan Eropah pada pertengahan abad ke-19. Penerbitan geografi-sejarah ini memperlakukan Palestin sebagai sebuah negara yang tersendiri dan sebuah unit geo-politik yang terpisah daripada Syria, Mesir dan Arabia. Perlu juga ditegaskan bahawa ungkapan 'Syria Selatan', yang muncul seketika pada awal abad ke-20, tidak pernah disebut dalam penerbitan-penerbitan ini.

Historical and Descriptive (1865) and Walter McLeod’s The Geography of Palestine, or, the Holy Land, Including Phoenicia and Philistia (1856) were typical of the large number of books on the historical geography of Palestine published in Britain and Europe in the middle of the 19th century. These historical-geographic publications treated Palestine as a distinct country and a geo-political unit separate from Syria, Egypt and Arabia. It is also worth pointing out that the expression ‘Southern Syria’, which appeared briefly in the early 20th century, was never mentioned in these publications.

Terutamanya, pada separuh kedua abad ke-19, terjemahan artikel dan buku ke dalam bahasa Arab mula membezakan dengan jelas antara Syria dan Palestin.

Crucially, in the second half of the 19th century translations of articles and books into Arabic began to distinguish clearly between Syria and Palestine.

Sebagai contoh, pada tahun 1883 artikel George Edward Post, ‘Plants of Syria and Palestine’, diterbitkan dalam jurnal berbahasa Arab al-Muqtataf (1883), yang diasaskan pada tahun 1876 di Syrian Protestant College, yang kini dikenali sebagai American University of Beirut, sebelum dipindahkan ke Kaherah pada tahun 1884. Perbezaan yang sama juga terdapat dalam versi Arab karya Post, Nabat Suriyya wa-Filastin wa-al-Qatr al-Misri wa-Bawadiha (Flora of Syria and Palestine and Sinai:

For instance, in 1883 George Edward Post’s article ‘Plants of Syria and Palestine’ was published in the Arabic journal al-Muqtataf (1883), which was founded in 1876 at the Syrian Protestant College, today the American University of Beirut, before moving to Cairo in 1884. The same distinction is also found in the Arabic version of Post’s Nabat Suriyya wa-Filastin wa-al-Qatr al-Misri wa-Bawadiha (Flora of Syria and Palestine and Sinai:

Buku Panduan Tumbuhan Berbunga dan Pakis Asli serta Naturalisasi dari Taurus hingga Ras Muhammad dan dari Laut Mediterania hingga Gurun Syria) (1896), suatu petunjuk bahawa menjelang tahun 1880-an penerbitan Eropah mengenai geografi Palestin dan terjemahannya ke dalam bahasa Arab mula memberi kesan terhadap persepsi moden orang Arab tentang Palestin (Foster 2013) serta perkembangan tanggapan bahawa Palestin merupakan satu unit geo-politik yang tersendiri.

A Handbook of the Flowering Plants and Ferns Native and Naturalized from the Taurus to Ras Muhammad and from the Mediterranean Sea to the Syrian Desert) (1896), an indication that by the 1880s European publications on Palestine geography and their translations into Arabic were beginning to have an impact on modern Arab perceptions of Palestine (Foster 2013) and the evolving notion that Palestine was a distinct geo-political unit.

Karya Guy Le Strange, seorang sarjana bahasa Arab dan Parsi di Universiti Cambridge, mengenai geografi sejarah Palestin di bawah pemerintahan Islam pada Zaman Pertengahan, telah menambah satu lagi dimensi kepada keprihatinan British terhadap Palestin pada separuh kedua abad ke-19. Buku Guy Le Strange bertajuk Palestine under the Moslems; A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 itu menjadi bukti tersebut.

The work of Guy Le Strange, a scholar of Arabic and Persian at Cambridge University, on the historical geography of Palestine under Islam in the Middle Ages, added another dimension to British preoccupation with Palestine in the second half of the 19th century. Guy Le Strange’s Palestine under the Moslems; A Description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650

hingga 1500. Diterjemahkan daripada Karya-Karya Ahli Geografi Arab Zaman Pertengahan, diterbitkan di London oleh Jawatankuasa Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) pada 1890. PEF, yang ditubuhkan pada 1865, telah pun memberi tumpuan kepada Palestin/Tanah Suci. Pendahulu-pendahulu lain kepada PEF juga memberi tumpuan kepada Palestin/Tanah Suci dan membuat perbezaan yang jelas antara Palestin dan Syria. Ini termasuk British Palestine Association yang berfahaman evangelical, yang ditubuhkan enam puluh tahun sebelum PEF. Penubuhan Palestine Association pada awal abad ke-19 telah didorong oleh Perang Napoleon serta pencerobohan dan kempen Perancis di Mesir dan Palestin pada 1798‒1801. Kekalahan Napoleon di Acre pada 1799 ialah salah satu episod yang paling terkenal dalam sejarah dunia moden. Kegagalan kepungannya ke atas Acre, bandar yang di Eropah dikenali sebagai ibu kota terakhir Kerajaan Salib Latin Jerusalem, pada 1799, dengan sokongan penuh kuasa maritim British, membuka era baharu penglibatan langsung British di rantau ini dan permulaan perbezaan religio-politik British antara Palestin dan Syria. Ini menjadi jelas dalam sebuah puisi romantik-evangelical yang panjang pada 1803, Palestine, yang digubah oleh seorang paderi, Reginald Heber, yang kemudiannya dikenali sebagai Uskup Calcutta, dengan bantuan Sir Walter Scott.

to 1500. Translated from the Works of the Mediaeval Arab Geographers, was published in London by the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) in 1890. The PEF, founded in 1865, had already focused on Palestine/ the Holy Land. Other antecedents to the PEF also focused on Palestine/the Holy Land and made a clear distinction between Palestine and Syria. This included the evangelical British Palestine Association, established sixty years before the PEF. The formation of the Palestine Association in the early 19th century had been spurred by the Napoleonic wars and the 1798‒1801 French invasion and campaign in Egypt and Palestine. Napoleon’s defeat at Acre in 1799 is one of the best-known episodes of modern world history. The collapse of his siege of Acre – the city known in Europe as the last capital of the Latin Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem – in 1799 with the full support of British maritime power ushered in a new era in British direct involvement in the region and the beginnings of British religio-political distinction between Palestine and Syria. This became evident in a long romantic-evangelical poem from 1803, Palestine, which was composed by a clergyman, Reginald Heber, later known as Bishop of Calcutta, with the help of Sir Walter Scott.

Puisi yang popular itu dibacakan di teater-teater London dan kemudiannya diterbitkan, serta digubah muziknya oleh komposer William Crotch, seorang profesor muzik di Universiti Oxford. Penglibatan evangelikal British yang semakin meningkat di Palestin turut jelas kelihatan dalam penamaan semula Persatuan Palestin, yang ditubuhkan pada tahun 1805 sejurus selepas Perancis berundur dari rantau itu. Persatuan ini pada mulanya diasaskan pada Mac 1805 dengan nama Persatuan Syria. Sebulan kemudian, pada 24 April 1805, para pengasasnya memutuskan bahawa Persatuan Syria ‘hendaklah mulai sekarang dinamakan Persatuan Palestin’. Persatuan Palestin diasaskan bersama dan dipimpin oleh William Richard Hamilton (1777–1859), seorang diplomat, pengembara, ahli antikuiti dan pakar Mesir Kuno British yang kemudiannya berkhidmat sebagai Setiausaha Bawah Menteri bagi Hal Ehwal Luar Negeri.

The popular poem was recited in London theatres and was later published, and set to music by the composer William Crotch, a professor of music at Oxford University. The increasing British evangelical involvement in Palestine also became evident in the renaming of the Palestine Association, which was established in 1805 shortly after the departure of the French from the region. This society had initially been founded in March 1805 under the name Syrian Society. A month later, on 24 April 1805, its founders decided that the Syrian Society ‘shall henceforth be denominated The Palestine Association’. The Palestine Association was co-founded and led by William Richard Hamilton (1777–1859), a British diplomat, traveller, antiquarian and Egyptologist who later served as Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs.

Persatuan itu secara rasmi dibubarkan pada tahun 1834 dan digabungkan ke dalam Persatuan Geografi Diraja (Silberman 1982; Kark and Goren 2011).

The Association was formally disbanded in 1834 and incorporated into the Royal Geographical Society (Silberman 1982; Kark and Goren 2011).

Le Strange, *Palestine under the Moslems* (1890, 2010, 2014) meletakkan imej Kubah Batu di kulit bukunya dan memuatkan peta serta ilustrasi. Karyanya, yang memperkenalkan "jisim maklumat yang tersembunyi dalam teks-teks Arab para ahli geografi dan pengembara Muslim pada Zaman Pertengahan" (Le Strange 1890: Prakata), memberikan gambaran yang jelas tentang Jund Filastin di bawah pemerintahan Islam berdasarkan catatan al-Maqdisi, ahli sejarah dan geografi Palestin-Baitulmaqdis abad ke-10, serta karyanya, Ahsan al-Taqasim Fi Ma'rifat al-Aqalim (The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions) (al-Maqdisi 1994, 2002). Le Strange telah pun menterjemahkan karya terkenal al-Maqdisi itu daripada bahasa Arab ke dalam bahasa Inggeris dan menerbitkannya pada tahun 1886 dengan judul *al-Mukaddasi's Description of Syria and Palestine*. Judul ini juga menegaskan perbezaan geopolitik yang tajam antara Palestin dan Syria dalam pemikiran Eropah pada abad ke-19.

Le Strange’s Palestine under the Moslems (1890, 2010, 2014) placed the image of the Dome of the Rock on its cover and contained maps and illustrations. His work, which introduces ‘the mass of information which lies buried in the Arabic texts of the Moslem geographers and travellers of the Middle Ages’ (Le Strange 1890: Preface), provided vivid descriptions of Jund Filastin under Islam on the basis of the accounts of the 10th century Palestinian Jerusalemite historian and geographer al-Maqdisi and his work, Ahsan al-Taqasim Fi Ma’rifat al-Aqalim (The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions) (al-Maqdisi 1994, 2002). Le Strange had already translated from Arabic into English and published in 1886 al-Maqdisi’s famous work under the title al-Mukaddasi’s Description of Syria and Palestine, and this title by Le Strange also underlines the sharp geo-political distinction between Palestine and Syria in European thinking in the 19th century.

Perbezaan yang jelas antara Palestin/Tanah Suci, di satu pihak, dan Syria/al-Sham, di pihak lain, bukanlah hanya datang daripada orang Eropah; seperti yang telah kita lihat, pada abad ke-17 pengarang Muslim Palestin Salih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtashi telah membuat perbezaan tersebut dalam karyanya The Complete Knowledge in Remembering the Holy Land and Its Boundaries and Remembering Palestine and its Boundaries and al-Sham (1695‒1696).

The clear distinction between Palestine/the Holy Land, on the one hand, and Syria/al-Sham, on the other, was not exclusively European; as we have already seen, in the 17th century Palestinian Muslim author Salih ibn Ahmad al-Tumurtashi made that distinction in his work The Complete Knowledge in Remembering the Holy Land and Its Boundaries and Remembering Palestine and its Boundaries and al-Sham (1695‒1696).

Dan generasi peziarah Kristian zaman pertengahan dan moden juga merujuk kepada pembahagian geografi Palestin, Syria dan Arabia. Bagi rakyat Palestin yang berpendidikan, yang biasa dengan tulisan Islam klasik tentang Palestin dan al-Sham serta penerbitan Eropah tentang Palestin, dan bagi rakyat Palestin biasa yang memerhati dari dekat kafilah peziarah Eropah dan Rusia, perbezaan antara Palestin/Tanah Suci dan Syria akan dianggap sebagai sesuatu yang lumrah. Sekolah Terra Sancta yang dibiayai Barat dan bermazhab Roman Katolik, yang berpusat di bandar-bandar Palestin tempat kebanyakan orang Kristian Palestin tinggal, mula muncul di Nazareth, Jaffa, Bethlehem dan Jerusalem. Bagi rakyat Palestin yang dididik di sekolah Eropah dan Rusia, sama ada di tanah air atau di luar negara, penghasilan "pengetahuan" Eropah tentang geografi sejarah Palestin/Tanah Suci, serta kemunculan konsulat-konsulat Eropah yang pesat di Palestin, turut menjadi perkara yang amat menarik minat dan sedikit membimbangkan mereka. Dari pertengahan abad ke-19, dengan bertambah baiknya perhubungan dan penubuhan beberapa konsulat Eropah di Palestin, "Grand Tour" abad ke-18, iaitu lawatan tradisional yang dilakukan terutamanya oleh pemuda Eropah kelas atasan yang berada melalui bandar-bandar Itali, digantikan oleh "Cook Tour" (dianjurkan oleh Thomas Cook), iaitu pelancongan massa awal kelas pertengahan dan perjalanan ke "Greece, Palestine and Egypt". Thomas Cook mengatur lawatan Kaiser Jerman Wilhelm II ke Palestin pada tahun 1898. "Cook's Tour" dan pelancongan Tanah Suci Thomas Cook turut melahirkan banyak penerbitan dalam pelbagai bahasa Eropah tentang "geografi Palestin" dan Tanah Suci, dan kebanyakannya juga boleh diakses oleh golongan elit Palestin yang berpendidikan dan pegawai-pegawai Uthmaniyyah. Secara popular, pelancongan besar-besaran Eropah di Palestin memberi kesan kepada dialek Arab Palestin dan, dari masa ke masa, memperkenalkan banyak perkataan Perancis dan Itali ke dalam bahasa Arab Palestin – perkataan seperti hotel (otel), chauffeur, douche, beton (baton), mode (moda), canapé (canabai), salon, balcon (balconeh), billet (bolet), farmacia (farmashiyyah), souvenir, ascenseur, (ascensel), dossier (dusiyyeh), automobile, Benzina (banzin) dan garage (karaj) yang masih digunakan secara meluas hari ini.

Also, successive generations of medieval and modern Christian pilgrims referred to geographical subdivision of Palestine, Syria and Arabia. For educated local Palestinians, familiar with both classical Arab Islamic writings on Palestine and al-Sham and European publications on Palestine, and for ordinary Palestinians observing the caravans of European and Russian pilgrims at close quarters, this distinction between Palestine/the Holy Land and Syria would be taken for granted. Western-funded, Roman Catholic Terra Sancta schools based in the urban centres of Palestine where most Palestinian Christians resided began to appear in Nazareth, Jaffa, Bethlehem and Jerusalem, and for Palestinians educated in the European and Russian schools at home or abroad the production of the European ‘knowledge’ on the historical geography of Palestine/the Holy Land as well as the mushrooming of European consulates in Palestine would also be a matter of great interest and some concern. From the mid-19th century, with the improvement of communication and establishment of several European consulates in Palestine, the ‘Grand Tour’ of the 18th century – the traditional trip undertaken by mainly upper class European young men of means through Italian cities – was replaced by the ‘Cook Tour’ (organised by Thomas Cook): middle class early mass tourism and travels in ‘Greece, Palestine and Egypt’. Thomas Cook arranged for the German Kaiser Wilhelm II to visit Palestine in 1898. The ‘Cook’s Tour’ and Thomas Cook Holy Land Tourism also spawned numerous publications in many European languages on the ‘geography of Palestine’ and the Holy Land, many of which were also accessible to members of the educated Palestinian elite and Ottoman officials. On a popular level, European mass tourism in Palestine impacted on the Palestinian vernacular and, over time, introduced many French and Italian words into Palestinian Arabic – words such as hotel (otel), chauffeur, douche, beton (baton), mode (moda), canapé (canabai), salon, balcon (balconeh), billet (bolet), farmacia (farmashiyyah), souvenir, ascenseur, (ascensel), dossier (dusiyyeh), automobile, Benzina (banzin) and garage (karaj) still commonly in use today.

Pada abad ke-19 dan awal abad ke-20, sebahagian besar penghasilan ilmu Eropah mengenai Palestin dalam buku dan catatan perjalanan masih didominasi oleh Kajian Bible, Geografi Berasaskan Kitab Suci, dan Orientalisme, yang menggambarkan orang Arab Palestin sebagai "lampiran ringkas kepada landskap Bible purba … sebagai 'bayang-bayang' dari masa silam yang jauh, 'fosil' yang tergantung dalam masa" (Kamel 2014, 2015), manakala fallahin (petani) Arab

In the 19th century and early 20th century much of the European knowledge production on Palestine in books and travel diaries remained dominated by Biblical Studies, Scriptural Geography, Orientalism in which the Palestinian Arabs were portrayed as a ‘simple appendix to the ancient Biblical [landscape] … as “shadows” of the far- off past, “fossils” suspended in time’ (Kamel 2014, 2015), while the Arab fallahin (peasants)

...moden Palestin dianggap sebagai simbol 'orang Yahudi dalam Bible' (Gil, E.

of modern Palestine were viewed as symbols of the ‘biblical Jews’ (Gil, E.

2006). Walau bagaimanapun, seawal pertengahan abad ke-19, ahli arkeologi Bible dan ahli geografi Kitab Suci Edward Robinson (1794‒1863), yang menulis pada awal 1860-an ketika perjalanan orang Eropah ke Levant menjadi meluas, mencatatkan ‘Palestin, atau Palestina, kini nama yang paling lazim bagi Tanah Suci’ (Robinson, E. 1865: 15; lihat juga Robinson 1841; dan Robinson et al. 1860).

2006). However, as early as the mid-19th century, biblical archaeologist and scriptural geographer Edward Robinson (1794‒1863), writing in the early 1860s when travel by Europeans to the Levant became widespread, notes ‘Palestine, or Palestina, now the most common name for the Holy Land’ (Robinson, E. 1865: 15; see also Robinson 1841; and Robinson et al. 1860).

Pemerhatian ini juga jelas dalam *Description géographique, historique et archéologique de la Palestine* karya Victor Guérin yang terdiri daripada tujuh jilid (1868‒1880; juga Guérin 1881–1883). Pada tahun 1860-an, pihak British telah menubuhkan Palestine Exploration Fund, yang membiayai *Survey of Western Palestine* dan menganjurkan ekspedisi pemetaan geografi di Palestin. PEF ialah contoh tipikal bagi "persatuan ilmiah" yang ditubuhkan di Britain, dan bertanggungjawab memproses tanggapan serta teori empayar menjadi pemikiran dan hujah Orientalis yang bersifat pseudo-saintifik, yang seterusnya membentuk dasar dan niat British, yang memuncak dalam Perisytiharan Balfour pada 2 November 1917. Salah satu motif politik utama PEF jelas daripada penerbitannya sendiri: *Names and Places in the Old and New Testament and Apocrypha: With their Modern Identifications* (Palestine Exploration Fund 1889). Palestine Exploration Fund menyenaraikan lebih 1150 nama tempat yang berkaitan dengan Perjanjian Lama dan 162

This observation is also evident from Victor Guérin’s seven-volume Description géographique, historique et archéologique de la Palestine (1868‒1880; also Guérin 1881–1883). In the 1860s, the British had set up the Palestine Exploration Fund, which sponsored the Survey of Western Palestine and mounted geographical map-making expeditions in Palestine. The PEF was a typical example of the ‘learned societies’ founded in Britain and was responsible for processing the empire’s notions and theories into pseudo-scientific Orientalist thinking and argumentation, leading to the shaping of British policy and intentionality which finds its apotheosis in the Balfour Declaration of 2 November 1917. One of the main political motives of the PEF was clear from its own publication: Names and Places in the Old and New Testament and Apocrypha: With their Modern Identifications (Palestine Exploration Fund 1889). The Palestine Exploration Fund listed more than 1150 place names related to the Old Testament and 162

Berkaitan dengan Perjanjian Baru. Pemerintahan British di Palestin secara rasmi bermula pada 11 Disember 1917 apabila Jeneral Allenby secara rasmi memasuki Bandar Lama Baitulmaqdis. Sejurus selepas pendudukan tentera British ke atas Palestin, pihak berkuasa British mula mengumpulkan maklumat toponimik daripada penduduk Palestin tempatan. Minat Eropah terhadap "nama-nama tempat dalam Bible" dan terhadap Baitulmaqdis, serta perkembangan kajian "Bible Studies" di Eropah dan Amerika, memberi sedikit kesan kepada pemikiran rasmi Uthmaniyyah dan kepada tulisan sebilangan penulis nasionalis Palestin. Yang terakhir ini berusaha membina wacana anti-Zionis dengan merangka nasionalisme Palestin moden dalam istilah primordialis, yang berakar pada akar Kan'aan dan "Tanah Kan'aan" (lihat, sebagai contoh, Cattan 1969: 3‒4).

related to the New Testament. British rule in Palestine formally began on 11 December 1917 when General Allenby officially entered the Old City of Jerusalem. Shortly after the British military occupation of Palestine, the British authorities set out to gather toponymic information from the local Palestinian inhabitants. The European preoccupation with ‘biblical place names’ and with Jerusalem, and the European and American growth of ‘Bible Studies’, had some impact on official Ottoman thinking and on the writings of some Palestinian nationalist authors. The latter sought to construct a counter-Zionist discourse by couching modern Palestinian nationalism in primordialist terms, rooted in Canaanite roots and the ‘Land of Canaan’ (see, for instance, Cattan 1969: 3‒4).